UNIVERSITY,*- 


■ 


LOS 


Li' 


STUDIES  IN 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
GEOGRAPHY 

FOLLOWING  THE  PROJECT- PROBLEM  METHOD 


By 

EARL  E.  LACKEY 

Department  of  Geography,  State  Norma!  School 
Wayne,  Nebraska 


<  J     "i 


RAND  McNALLY  &  COMPANY 
CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


489  5 


Copyright,  IQ20,  by 

Rand  McN^lly  &  Company 

Second  Printing 


B-21 


THE   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Preface ix 

PROJECT  I.     INTRODUCTORY 

NUMBER 

i.  The  Definition  of  Geography i 

2.  Geographic  Facts  and  Principles  and  Their  Classi- 
fication   3 

3.  The  Aims  of  Modern  Geography 5 

PROJECT  II.     THE   EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 

1.  Composition 8 

2.  Earth  Form 10 

3.  Motions  of  the  Earth:  Rotation 12 

4.  Daylight  and  Darkness 13 

5.  Motions  of  the  Earth:  Revolution       ....  15 

6.  Relation  of  Seasons  to  Life  and  Progress   .      .      .17 

7.  Earth   Measurements:  Longitude    and    Latitude  18 

8.  Representation  of  the  Earth's  Surface     .      .      .21 

9.  Scale,  Direction,  and  Legend  of  Maps   .      .      .      .  22 

10.  The  Topographic  Map 24 

PROJECT  III.    DIVISIOx\S  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE: 
LAND  AND  SEA 

11.  Shore  Lines  and  Harbors 26 

12.  Movements  of  the  Y/aters  of  the  Sea       ...  28 

13.  The  Sea  as  a  Highway 29 

PROJECT  IV.     THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  LAND: 
TOPOGRAPHY 

14.  The  Geography  of  Lowlands 32 

15.  The  Geography  of  Plateau  Regions      ....  34 

16.  The  Geography  of  Mountains 36 

V 


vi  The  Contents 

NUMBER  PAGE 

PROJECT  V.     THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  LAND: 
HYDROGRAPHY 

17.  The  Geography  of  Rivers 39 

18.  The  Geography  of  Lakes 40 

19.  The  Geography  of  Underground  Waters  .      .      .42 

PROJECT  VI.     THE  ATMOSPHERE 

20.  Composition  and  Use 44 

21.  Elasticity  of  the  Air 46 

22.  Weight  of  the  Air 4S 

23.  Source,  Evaporation,  and  Latent  Heat  of  Atmos- 
pheric Moisture         50 

24.  Causes  of  Condensation  of  Atmospheric  Moisture  52 

25.  Moisture   Content   of   the   Air   in   Relation   to 
Pressure 53 

26.  The  Cause  of  Winds 55 

27.  The  Wind  and  Calm  Belts  of  the  World       .      .  57 

28.  Moisture   Conditions   in   the   Intertropical   and 
Subtropical  Belts 59 

29.  The  Winds  of  the  Westerlies 61 

30.  Highs  and  Lo^s  in  Relation  to  Temperature   .      .  63 

31.  Precipitation  in  the  Westerlies 64 

^2.  Weather  Forecasting 66 

^,^.  Migration    of    Planetary    Belts    of    Winds    and 

Calms 63 

PROJECT  VII.     CLIMATIC  TYPES  AND  THEIR 
CORRELATIVES 

34.  Amazon   Type,    or   Equatorial    or    Doldrum    Cli- 
mates        71 

35.  Caribbean    Type,    or    Trade-Wind    and    Monsoon 
Climates 73 

36.  Mexican  Type,   or  Horse  Latitudes   and  Trade- 
Wind  Climates 74 

37.  Arizon.w  Type,  or  Arid  and  Desert  Climates       .      76 

38.  Califor.man   Type,    or   West-Coast   Transitional 
Climates 78 


The  Contents  vii 

NUMBEH  PAGE 

39.  Floridan  Type,   or  Subtropical  East-Coast  Cli- 
mates in  the  Northern  Hemisphere       ....     79 

40.  La  Plata  Type,  or  Subtropical  East-Coast  Climates 

in  the  Southern  Hemisphere 80 

41.  Oregon  Type,  or  Temperate  West-Coast  Climates 

in  Middle  Latitudes 81 

42.  Mississippian  Type,  or  Low  Continental  Interior 
and  East-Coast  Climates  in  Middle  Latitudes     .     83 

43.  American   Interior   Type,   or   High   Continental 
Interior  Climates  in  Middle   Latitudes  ...     85 

44.  Alaskan  Type,  or  West-Coast  Climates  in  High 
Latitudes S6 

45.  Canadian  Type,  or  Continental  and  East-Coast 
Climates  in  High  Latitudes 88 

46.  Arctic  Type,  or  Polar  Climates 89 

47.  Greenland  Type,  or  Climate  of  Continental  Ice 
Sheets go 


PROJECT  VIII.     DISTRIBUTION  OF  VEGETATION 

48.  Conditions  of  Plant  Life 92 

49.  Types  of  Plant  Life 93 

50.  Sukvey  of  Plant  Distribution 95 


PROJECT  IX.     DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS 

51.  Conditions  of  Animal  Life 97 

52.  Types  of  Animal  Life 98 

53.  Survey  of  Animal  Distribution 99 


PROJECT  X.     DISTRIBUTION  OF  MAN 

54.  Conditions  of  Human  Existence 102 

55.  Types  of  the  Human  Family 103 

56.  Survey  of  Human  Distribution 104 


viii  The  Contents 

PAGE 

The  Appendix: 

Some  Notes  for  Teachers  on  the  Problem  Method  of 

Attack  in  Geography 109 

Rainfall  in  the  Climatic  Regions  of  America   .      .      .112 
Temperature,    Cloudiness,    and    Wind    Belts    of    the 

Climatic  Regions  of  America 113 

References  Needed  in  This  Course 114 


THE    PREFACE 

This  little  book  represents  an  attempt  to  develop  a 
working  knowledge  of  some  of  the  principles  of  geography 
through  the  problem  method  of  attack.  It  is  the  out- 
growth of  classroom  experience  and  has  been  in  the  process 
of  evolution  through  a  number  of  years.  The  method  of 
attack  and  development  follows  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
natural  steps  in  the  thinking  process. 

The  aim  has  been  not  to  sacrifice  pedagogical  considera- 
tions for  the  sake  of  a  logical  arrangement,  but  to  correlate 
the  two  in  the  best  possible  way.  It  will  be  noted  that 
there  are  ten  groups  of  problems.  Each  group  is  intro- 
duced by  the  statement  of  the  large  idea,  the  central 
thought  running  through  the  entire  series  of  problems. 
The  main  problems  of  this  book  involve  what  may  be 
considered  a  list  of  basic  minimum  essentials  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  geography.  The  conclusions,  which  are  an 
essential  part  of  each  problem,  require  the  formal  state- 
ment of  a  large  list  of  geographic  principles,  each  vitally 
connected  up  with  some  problem  full  of  life  interest.  The 
related  problems  are  calculated  to  give  the  student  drill 
on  principles  previously  learned,  and  to  afford  oppor- 
tunity to  recognize  old  principles  in  new  associations. 
Frequently  it  will  be  found  that  the  related  problem  is 
really  a  corollary  to  the  main  problem,  rather  than  a  mere 
practice  exercise. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  state  that  this  syllabus 
was  awarded  first  place  by  the  National  Council  of  Normal 
School  Presidents  and  Principals  in  a  competition  among 
syllabi  submitted  from  thirty-seven  normal  schools  in 
twentv-four  states.     The  consistent  and  studied  use  of 


x  The  Preface 

the  problem  method  was  one  of  the  reasons  given  for  the 
selection  of  this  syllabus  to  head  the  list.  In  order  to  get 
the  author's  point  of  view,  the  teachers  who  use  this 
little  book  should  read  thoughtfully  the  suggestions  to 
teachers  offered  under  the  title  "The  Problem  Method  of 
Attack  in  Geography,"  page  109. 

The  author  has  used  this  syllabus  with  excellent  results 
in  teaching  the  principles  of  geography  to  students  with 
varying  degrees  of  academic  preparation.  Pupils  in  the 
upper  years  of  the  junior  high  school  and  students  in  the 
rural  and  advanced  courses  of  the  normal  school,  all  have 
followed  the  work  eagerly  and  with  much  profit.  It  is 
recommended  as  an  excellent  line  of  work  for  students 
in  the  normal  training  courses  of  our  high  schools. 

It  is  fitting  and  proper  that  the  author  should  acknowl- 
edge his  indebtedness  to  President  U.  S.  Conn  of  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Wayne,  Nebraska,  for  his  sympathy 
and  kindly  encouragement  in  this  work,  and  to  Dean  H.  H. 
Hahn,  director  of  the  Training  School  at  the  same  institu- 
tion, for  his  help  and  valuable  advice  relative  to  the 
organization  of  geographic  materials  for  presentation  in 
problem  form. 

Earl  E.  Lackey 

State  Normal  School 

Wayne,  Nebraska 

April,  1920 


STUDIES   IN  THE 
PRINCIPLES   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

I.     INTRODUCTORY 

PROJECT  i 
This  project  is  designed  to  develop  three  significant 
ideas:  first,  the  importance  of  a  meaningful  definition  of 
geography;  second,  the  essential  and  relative  values  of 
facts  and  principles  as  applied  to  geographic  work;  and 
third,  the  great  need  for  specific  aims  in  modern  geog- 
raphy teaching. 

1.  THE   DEFINITION   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

Purpose  (the  teacher's  aim  for  a  sub-unit  of  the  project)2: 
To  compare  a  number  of  definitions  of  geography  and 
to  determine  which  of  them  is  best  suited  to  our  needs 
at  the  present  time 

Problem  (the  pupil's  contact  with  a  sub-unit  of  the  pro- 
ject)3: How  does  the  geography  of  today  differ  from 
the  geography  of  a  few  years  ago,  and  how  will  your 

,  1  A  project  is  a  complex  unit  of  work  carried  to  completion  in  its'natural  setting 
under  the  inspiration  of  purposeful  activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  In  order  to 
work  out  a  project  it  is  usually  necessary  to  break  it  up  into  several  parts  or  sub- 
units  of  work.     These  sub-units  of  work  are  termed  problems. 

2  The  teacher  necessarily  is  interested  in  the  project  as  a  whole,  and  when  think- 
ing of  the  parts  of  the  project  he  must  be  interested  in  each  part  as  related  to  the 
whole.  The  teacher's  aim  for  one  of  these  sub-units  of  activity  is  a  problem- 
project,  so  called  because  the  teacher  views  this  sub-unit  of  work  as  a  problem 
connected  with  a  project.  When  we  speak  of  a  problem-project,  we  are  thinking  of 
the  situation  from  the  teacher's  point  of  view.  In  this  outline  the  problem- 
project  is  designated  as  the  purpose. 

3  The  pupil  comes  into  daily  contact  with  the  project^through  the  problem.  He 
is  not  so  much  concerned  about  the  project  as  a  whole.  His  large  interest  is  in 
the  sub-unit  of  daily  work.  This  sub-unit  is  introduced  to  the  pupil  through  the 
problem.  Since  the  problem  in  this  book  is  a  part  of  a  project,  it  may  very  prop- 
erly be  called  a  project-problem.  When  we  speak  of  a  project-problem,  we  are 
looking  at  the  situation  from  the  pupils  point  of  view.  In  this  book  the  project- 
problem  is  designated  simply  as  the  problem. 


2  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

definition  of  the  subject  influence  your  attitude  when 
you  are  studying  and  teaching  it  ? 

Studying  the  Problem  (gathering,  organizing,  and  testing  facts) : 

i.  Recall   definitions  of  geography  that   you  know,  find 

several  from  old  and  also  from  more  recent  texts,  write 

them  down,  note  the  author,  and  bring  them  to  class 

for  comparison  and  discussion. 

2.  Study  the  following  definition:  Geography  is  a  study  of 
facts  concerning  the  earth  and  its  products,  of  facts  con- 
cerning man  and  his  industries,  and  the  principles  deal- 
ing with  their  physical  and  social  interpretation. 

3.  What  new  element  do  you  discover  in  the  definition 
just  stated?  What  shifting  of  emphasis  is  noticeable? 
Discuss  the  points  in  which  it  is  inferior  or  superior  to 
other  definitions  you  have  considered. 

4.  How  may  a  definition  of  geography  benefit  one  who 
expects  to  teach  it?  Would  you  teach  your  definition 
to  the  children? 

References  (helps  in  studying  the  problem) : 

Dodge  and  Kirchwey,  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  pp.  1-5; 
Holtz,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography, 
pp.  1-5;  Lyde,  The  Teaching  of  Geography;  Archer-Lewis- 
Chapman,  The  Teaching  of  Geography;  Sutherland,  The 
Teaching  of  Geography;  Educational  Review,  XLIX,  236; 
Journal  of  Geography,  XIII,  83,  201;  XIV,  295;  XVIII, 
185 

Conclusions  (a  summary  of  important  facts  and  principles) : 

1.  Essential  element  in  the  geography  of  today 

2.  Three  definitions  representing,  respectively,  the  old,  the 
recent,  and  the  new  in  geography 

3.  Value  of  geography  in  the  course  of  study 

4.  The  changing  emphasis  in  geography 

5.  The  value  of  a  definition  in  geography 

Related  Problems  (applying  and  fixing  important  facts 
and  principles) : 
1.  Find  out  the  names  of  several  kinds  of  geography 


Introductory  3 

and  the  nature  of  the  materials  with  which  each 
deals. 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  good  and  poor  geo- 
graphic materials  ? 

3.  Wherein  do  definitions  generally  fall  short  of  point- 
ing definitely  the  way  to  the  teacher? 

4.  What  are  the  three  things  you  consider  the  most 
vital  to  the  best  interests  of  geography  work  at  the 
present  time? 

5.  Wherein  is  geography,  as  now  taught,  generally  fall- 
ing short  of  securing  the  results  it  ought  to  accom- 
plish ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "humanized  geography"? 

7.  How  is  geography  related  to  other  subjects  in  the 
curriculum  ? 

2.  GEOGRAPHIC  FACTS  AND   PRINCIPLES 
AND   THEIR   CLASSIFICATION 

Purpose:  To  study  the  relations  existing  between  geo- 
graphic facts  and  geographic  principles,  and  to  deter- 
mine the  place  of  each  in  the  study  of  geography 

Problem  (to  develop  general  principles) :  What  are  geo- 
graphic facts  and  principles,  and  what  use  can  be  made 
of  them? 

Studying  the  Problem  (gathering,  organizing,  and  testing  data) : 

1 .  Read  what  different  authors  have  to  say  about  the  nature 
of  geographic  principles  and  their  importance.  Write 
down  some  of  the  most  valuable  statements  you  find 
and  bring  them  to  class  for  discussion. 

2.  Study  the  following  definitions  and  be  able  to  comment 
on  their  value: 

Principles  of  arithmetic  are  the  laws  of  arithmetical 
interpretation,  the  rules  for  solving  the  arithmetical 
problems  in  our  environment. 


Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Principles  of  geography  are  the  laws  of  geographic 
interpretation,  the  rules  for  solving  the  problems  in 
our  geographic  environment. 

Geographic  principles  arc  the  laws  which  interpret  the 
relationships  existing  among  geographic  facts. 

3.  What  effect  does  the  emphasis  of  geographic  principles 
have  on  the  scope  and  value  of  geography? 

How  are  geographic  principles  related  to  the  new 
geography? 

4.  Farm  animals  are  divided  into  five  classes;  namely, 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry.  Each  class 
is  divided  into  types  and  breeds.  For  example,  there 
are  four  types  of  horses — the  draft,  the  coach,  the 
road  horse,  and  the  pony.  Each  type  is  divided  into 
a  number  of  breeds;  for  example,  draft  horses  are 
divided  into  Percherons,  Clydesdales,  Shires,  Belgians, 
etc. 

See  if  you  can  devise  a  scheme  whereby  geographic 
principles  could  be  classified  in  some  such  comprehen- 
sive way. 

What  good  purposes  might  be  served  by  such  a  classi- 
fication? 

References  (helps  in  the  study  of  the  problem) : 

Dodge  and  Kirchwey,  p.  61;  Holtz,  pp.  256-258;  Suther- 
land, pp.  27-36;  Hotchkiss,  Representative  Cities  of  the 
United  States,  p.  303;  Archer-Lewis-Chapman,  pp.  12-16; 
Sutherland  and  Sanford,  Practical  Exercises  in  Geography, 
pp.  1-17;  Journal  of  Geography,  XII,  161;  XIV,  65,  83, 
1 29,  201 

Conclusions   (a  summary  of  important  facts  and  principles 
involved) : 

1 .  Value  of  geographic  facts 

2.  Definition  and  value  of  geographic  principles 

3.  Relation  of  geographic  principles  to  the  subject  of  geog- 
raphy 

4.  Rational  scheme  for  the  classification  of  geographic 
principles 


Introductory  5 

5.  How   geographic   facts   and   geographic   principles   are 
vitally  related 

Related  Problems  (applying  and  fixing  important  facts 
and  principles) : 

1.  Give  some  principles  underlying  the  location  of 
cities.     (See  Hotchkiss.) 

2.  What  principles  or  rules  are  learned  by  means  of 
which  problems  in  percentage  are  solved?  What  is 
the  purpose  of  the  list  of  problems  or  exercises  fol- 
lowing the  development  of  rules  or  principles  ?  What 
is  the  value  of  the  rules  and  principles  in  arithmetic  ? 
Discuss  the  possibility  of  organizing  and  developing 
the  principles  of  geography  in  a  similar  manner,  and 
applying  these  principles  to  a  set  of  concrete  prob- 
lems. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  principles  underlying  the  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing  in  New  England.  (See 
Sutherland  and  Sanford.) 

4.  What  expressions  in  definitions  of  geography  that 
you  have  studied  state  or  imply  the  value  of  geo- 
graphic principles? 

5.  Why  have  the  laws  of  mathematical,  linguistic,  and 
scientific  interpretation  been  more  carefully  worked 
out  and  formulated  than  the  laws  of  geography  ? 

3.  THE   AIMS    OF   MODERN    GEOGRAPHY 

Purpose:  To  discover  how  the  new  needs  in  education 
have  changed  the  emphasis  in  geography  work 

Problem:  What  are  the  aims  of  modern  geography,  and 
what  conditions  have  made  a  restatement  of  them  neces- 
sary? 
Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  What  is  the  goal  of  education  in  a  democracy?     (See 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1918,  No.  35.)     How  may 


Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

education  socialize  the  individual  as  well  as  intellectual- 
ize  and  industrialize  him?  What  can  geography  do  to 
assist  in  realizing  the  new  goals  in  education? 

2.  Study  and  carefully  analyze  the  following  aims  for 
modern  geography: 

c)  Geography  should  seek  to  create  in  the  children  an 
abiding  interest  in  how  the  peoples  of  different  coun- 
tries live  —  their  important  industries,  their  fine 
achievements,  their  pleasures,  their  leisure-time 
activities  —  and  the  reciprocal  duties  and  responsi- 
bilities that  exist  between  them  and  us. 

b)  It  should  give  pupils  a  mastery  of  geographic  facts 
and  principles  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  explain  the 
development  of  important  industries,  the  location 
and  growth  of  leading  cities,  and  the  interdepend- 
ence of  the  peoples  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

c)  It  should  give  such  a  thorough  training  in  the  use  of 
the  tools  of  the  subject  —  namely,  maps,  texts,  refer- 
ence books,  government  bulletins,  etc. — that  the 
pupils  may  become  independent  workers  in  the  solu- 
tion of  geographic  problems. 

d)  It  should  determine  for  the  pupils  whether  or  not  a 
people  are  using  wisely  the  resources  nature  has 
given  them,  how  they  may  improve  their  oppor- 
tunities, and  what  we  may  do  to  assist  them. 

e)  It  should  produce  a  social  orientation  in  the  lives  of 
the  pupils  such  as  will  lead  to  a  sympathetic  study 
and  understanding  of  peoples  and  races  other  than 
their  own. 

3.  Recall  the  definitions  studied  in  the  first  problem  and 
see  if  they  are  sufficiently  broad  and  yet  definite  enough 
to  include  the  aims  as  just  stated. 

4.  What  place  in  socializing  the  individual  does  geography 
occupy  that  no  other  subject  can  fill? 

References: 

Dodge  and  Kirchwey,  pp.  1-15;  Holtz,  pp.  1-5;  Sutherland, 
pp.    80-95;     School   Science    and    Mathematics,    February, 


Introductory  7 

1920,  pp.  117  and  157;  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin, 
191 8,  No.  35;  Educational  Review,  March,  1920,  p.  236; 
books  on  education;  Journal  of  Geography,  March,  1920, 
p.  89;  February,  1920,  p.  61;  May,  1919,  pp.  177,  185; 
January,  1919,  p.  24;  November,  1918,  p.  111;  February, 
1917,  p.  192;  November,  1915,  p.  65;  April,  1916,  p. 
295 

Conclusions: 

1 .  Goal  in  modern  education 

2.  Need  for  socialized  education 

3.  Need  for  creating  an  abiding  interest  in  geography 

4.  Why   a   working   knowledge    of   geographic    facts   and 
principles  is  so  important 

5.  Nature  and  use  of  geographic  tools 

6.  Value  of  knowing  the  natural  resources  possessed  by 
different  regions  and  peoples 

7.  How  geography  may  help  in  producing  needed  social 
orientation 

8.  How  physical  and  social  orientation  are  related 

Related  Problems: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  valuable  ideals  that  have 
recently  been  recognized  by  society,  and  how  can 
geography  assist  in  making  these  new  acquisitions 
permanent  ? 

2 .  In  what  sense  may  it  be  said  that  the  world  is  becom- 
ing smaller  every  day? 

3.  How  can  geography  assist  in  laying  a  foundation 
for  better  inter-class,  inter- race,  and  international 
relations  ? 

4.  What  phases  of  the  life  of  the  Mexican  people  are 
involved  in  the  first  aim  of  geography  as  stated 
above  ? 

5.  What  obstacles  stand  in  the  way  of  education  for 
inter-class,  inter-race,  and  international  friendship 
and  cooperation? 


II.     THE   EARTH   AS  A   WHOLE 

PROJECT 

This  project  seeks  to  develop  and  fix  some  of  the 
principles  which  show  the  relationships  that  exist  between 
the  earth  as  a  whole  —  including  composition,  form,  size, 
motions,  measurements,  and  mapping  —  and  the  life 
forms  dwelling  on  its  surface. 

1.  COMPOSITION 

Purpose:  To  develop  some  of  the  relationships  of  the 
materials  of  which  the  earth  is  made  to  the  life  forms 
dependent  upon  it 

Problem  (primarily  for  developing  principles) :  What  are 
the  materials  of  which  the  earth  is  made,  how  are  they 
arranged,  and  how  do  they  interact  with  the  life  forms 
dwelling  on  the  surface? 

Studying  the  Problem  (gathering,  organizing,  and  testing  data) : 
i.  What  names  are  applied  to  the  gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid 
portions  of  the  earth's  surface?     Name  a  number  of 
different  kinds  of  rock  found  in  your  vicinity. 

2.  Find  out  how  plants  and  animals  are  dependent  upon  and 
adapted  to  the  spheres  of  influence  in  which  they  live. 
Name  some  plants,  animals,  and  people  that  are  pecul- 
iarly fitted  to  the  environment  in  which  they  live. 

3.  Try  to  find  out  why  the  air  is  above  the  land  and  water, 
and  why  the  water  is  between  the  other  two.  Are  the 
three  spheres  of  influences  strictly  separate? 

4.  Give  a  few  notable  examples  in  which  man  has  been 
able  to  surmount  some  of  the  physical  barriers  in  his 
environment. 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  g 

References  (helps  in  the  study  of  the  problem) : 

Dryer,  High  School  Geography,  pp.  226-228,  243-250; 
Salisbury,  Physiography,  p.  3;  Sutherland,  pp.  27-31; 
Arey-Bryant-Clendenin-Morey,  Physiography,  p.  219;  Mill, 
International  Geography,  p.  36 

Conclusions   (a  summary  of  important  facts  and  principles 
learned) : 

1.  Names  of  the  three  spheres  of  influence  in  the  earth's 
composition 

2.  The  use  of  each  sphere  to  plants  and  animals 

3.  Cause  of  the  present  arrangement  of  the  parts 

4.  Apparent  and  real  relation  of  the  parts 

5.  Adaptations  of  plants  and  animals  to  the  spheres  of 
influence  in  which  they  live 

6.  Advantage  to  life  forms  of  a  distinct  separation  of  the 
spheres  of  influence 

7.  How    man    may    surmount    obstacles    in    his    physical 
environment 

Related  Problems  (applying  and  fixing  important  facts 
and  principles) : 

1.  Why  do  not  fish  in  the  water  or  worms  in  the  soil 
die  for  want  of  air? 

2.  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  animals  and 
man?     Between  animals  and  plants? 

3 .  How  does  the  distribution  of  soils  and  rocks  influence 
the  building  industry? 

4.  What  is  the  origin  of  soil?  Explain  how  different 
rock  formations  make  different  qualities  of  soil. 

5.  If  the  earth  has  been  formed  by  the  cooling,  lique- 
fying, and  solidification  of  gases,  where  would  most 
of  the  heaviest  minerals  be  found,  near  the  surface 
or  near  the  center  of  the  earth?     Why? 

6 .  Study  and  carefully  differentiate  between  the  nebular 
and  planetesimal  theories  of  the  earth's  origin. 


io  Studies  in  the  Principles  oj  Geography 

7.  Why  doesn't  the  earth  leave  the  sun?  Why  does 
it  not  fall  into  the  sun?  What  influence  would  a 
slower  or  faster  rate  of  movement  in  its  orbit  have 
on  the  earth's  distance  from  the  sun? 

8.  Cite  instances  of  color  adaptation  of  animals  or  plants 
to  environment. 

2.  EARTH   FORM 

Purpose :  Studying  the  evolution  of  knowledge  concerning 
the  earth's  shape,  and  to  show  how  a  spherical  earth 
has  valuable  relationships  that  other  forms  would  not 
possess 

Problem  (to  acquire  facts  and  develop  principles) :  What 
did  peoples  of  ancient  times  think  concerning  the  shape 
of  the  earth,  what  led  people  later  to  think  differently, 
and  how  are  we  benefited  by  the  earth's  being  spherical  r1 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find  out  what  the  Greeks,  Jews,  Toscanelli,  Eratos- 
thenes, Prince  Henry,  and  Columbus  thought  concern- 
ing the  shape  of  the  earth.  What  led  Columbus  to 
seek  a  western  route  to  India?  How  long  ago  was  it 
thought  that  the  earth  was  spherical,  and  what  proof 
was  offered? 

2.  Find  out  the  significance  as  to  the  shape  of  the  earth 
of  (a)  eclipse  of  the  moon,  (b)  disappearance  of  a  ship 
going  out  to  sea,  (c)  the  rising  of  the  north  star  as  one 
goes  northward,  (d)  the  comparative  weight  of  objects 
at  different  places  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
(e)  any  other  evidence  you  may  be  able  to  find. 

3.  If  the  earth  were  cylindrical,  egg-shaped,  or  flat,  what 
relationship  to  plants,  animals,  and  man  would  change 
from  the  present  conditions  with  the  spherical  form? 

References: 

Holtz,  chap,  xxii;    Mill,  pp.  8-10;    Dodge  and  Kirchwey, 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  n 

p.   ii ;  Arey,  pp.  5-6;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  Elements 
of  Geography,  pp.  10-12,  22-23;   Salisbury,  pp.  482-484 

Conclusions  (summary  of  important  facts  and  principles) : 

1.  Forces  molding  the  earth  into  its  present  form 

2.  How  eclipse  of  moon  proves  sphericity  of  the  earth 

3.  Significance  of  appearance  and  disappearance  of  ships 
moving  on  the  sea 

4.  Why  north  star  rises  as  one  travels  northward 

5.  Weight  of  equal  masses  at  different  places  on  the  earth 
and  its  significance 

6.  Advantages  of  a  spherical  earth  over  some  other  pos- 
sible forms 

7.  Why  some  one  did  not  act  on  the  principle  that  the 
"earth  is  spherical"  long  before  the  time  of  Columbus. 
What  principle  of  human  thought  and  action  is  involved? 

Related    Problems     (applying    the    principles     learned 
above) : 

1.  How  find  the  circumference,  diameter,  and  area  of 
the  earth? 

2.  How  long  would  it  take  to  go  around  the  earth 
traveling  five  hundred  miles  per  day? 

3 .  Compare  the  circumference  of  the  equator  with  that 
of  the  forty-fifth  parallel. 

4.  Account  for  the  jogs  in  the  county  lines  as  one  travels 
north  or  south. 

5.  What  principle  enables  a  merchant  to  know  that 
when  he  has  bought  five  hundred  thousand  pounds  of 
coffee  in  Brazil,  he  will  have  five  hundred  thousand 
pounds  when  he  gets  it  to  New  York  or  Liverpool? 

6.  Why  can  a  pendulum  clock  made  for  use  at  Chicago 
be  used  anywhere  else  with  but  slight  adjustments? 

7 .  If  the  earth  were  lemon-shaped,  with  the  axis  through 
the  major  diameter,  what  difference  in  the  density 
of  the  air  at  the  equator  and  the  poles  would  result  ? 


12  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

3.  MOTIONS    OF   THE    EARTH:     ROTATION 

Purpose:  Learning  how  it  may  be  shown  that  the  earth 
rotates 

Problem:  What  is  the  cause  of  day  and  night,  and  how- 
can  you  prove  that  your  answer  is  correct  ? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  What  did  the  ancients  think  was  the  cause  of  day  and 
night?  Was  their  explanation  a  good  one?  Was  it 
reasonable?  Does  the  fact  that  we  have  day  and  night 
prove  that  the  earth  rotates?     Why? 

2.  Consider  the  following  and  determine  their  bearing  on 
the  problem:  (i)  Focault's  pendulum  experiment;  {?.) 
path  of  a  heavy  object  dropped  from  a  high  tower;  (3) 
spheroidal  shape  of  the  earth;  (4)  and  any  other  signifi- 
cant facts  or  data  which  you  find. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  10,  15,  3$\  Salisbury,  pp.  484-488;  Arey,  pp.  7-9; 
Mill,  pp.  56,  68,  72,  76,  78 

Conclusions 

1.  Relation  of  rotation  to  day  and  night 

2.  Relation  of  rotation  to  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun 

3.  Relation  of  rotation  to  difference  in  time 

4.  Rotation  and  centrifugal  force  at  equator  and  poles 

5.  Relation  between  rotation  and  habits  of  life 

6.  Comparative  rate  of  eastward  movement  of  a  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  and  any  point  directly  beneath 
or  above  it 

Related  Problems: 

1.  How  fast  would  one  have  to  travel  on  the  equator 
to  keep  the  sun  constantly  overhead,  and  in  what 
direction?     Why  is  this  true? 

2.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  fact  that  the  sun  rises 
earlier  in  New  York  than  at  Chicago? 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  13 

3.  How  does  the  time  of  sunrise  or  sunset  compare  at 
different  places  on  the  goth  meridian?  Explain  in 
full. 

4.  Suppose  I  have  a  cannon  on  the  40th  parallel  that 
will  shoot  a  ball,  at  a  uniform  speed,  70  miles  in  one 
minute.  If  I  take  direct  aim  at  an  object  70  miles 
due  north,  shall  I  hit  it  or  not?  Explain  in  full. 
(See  Johnson,  Mathematical  Geography,  p.  58.) 

5.  How  docs  rotation  make  twilight  longer  here  than 
at  the  equator? 

6.  Why  does  a  river  flowing  toward  the  equator  dig 
harder  into  the  west  than  into  the  east  bank? 

7.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Mississippi  River  flows 
uphill.  Can  you  find  or  think  of  any  justification 
for  this  statement? 

4.  DAYLIGHT  AND  DARKNESS 

Purpose :  Teaching  the  relations  of  daylight  and  darkness 
to  life  forms  on  the  earth 

Problem:  What  arc  the  advantages  of  having  an  instal- 
ment of  daylight  and  darkness  every  twenty-four  hours  ? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  The  moon  always  lias  the  same  side  toward  the  earth. 
Would  this  be  a  good  relationship  established  between 
the  earth  and  the  sun?  Why?  State  the  needs  of  life 
on  earth  in  relation  to  periods  of  light  and  darkness, 
particularly  those  of  man. 

2.  Compare  the  length  of  the  periods  of  daylight  and  dark- 
ness at  the  equator  and  the  poles  and  state  the  bearing 
it  has  on  the  problem. 

3.  What  effect  would  continuous  sunshine  or  darkness 
have  upon  the  growth  and  development  of  plants  and 
animals? 


14  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

References : 

Dryer,  p.  14;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  p.  13;  Robinson, 
Commercial  Geography,  pp.  243-244;  Johnson,  Mathe- 
matical Geography,  chap,  iii;    Mill,  p. 23 

Conclusions: 

1.  Length  of  day  and  night  at  (a)  the  equator;  (b)  the 
poles;  (c)  intermediate  places  between  the  poles  and 
the  equator 

2.  Advantages  in  the  length  of  day  and  night  in  relation 
to  work  and  rest 

3.  Relation  of  day  and  night  to  habits  of  recreation,  play, 
and  games 

4.  Effect  on  habits  of  various  plants  and  animals  in  their 
adaptation  to  day  or  night  operations 

Related  Problems : 

t.  When  I  go  from  here  to  Denver  I  have  to  set  my 
watch  back  one  hour,  when  I  go  to  Boston  I  must 
set  it  ahead,  but  when  I  go  to  Galveston  no  change 
is  made.     Explain. 

Compare  the  total  amount  of  sunshine  for  a  year  at 
the  poles  and  a  point  on  the  equator. 
What  advantage  comes  from  having  long  clays  in 
summer  and  short  days  in  winter' 
How  long  has  each  day  been  on  the  earth  before  it 
reaches  you? 

It  is  said  that  twilight  is  much  shorter  in  Para  than 
at  New  York.     Explain  why. 

6.  What  is  the  twilight  zone? 

Why  do  we  change  from  one  day  to  the  next  at  mid- 
night rather  than  at  noon? 

8.  Explain  how  every  day  varies  from  o  to  48  hours  or 
more  in  length. 

What  would  be  some  of  the  effects  if  the  earth  were 
to  rotate  twice  as  fast  or  half  as  fast  as  it  does  now? 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  15 

10.  In  what  direction  on  the  earth  do  day  and  night 

travel?     How  fast? 
1 1    Compare  the  length  of  a  day  on  the  earth  with  the 

length  of  a  day  on  the  moon. 

5.  MOTIONS   OF   THE   EARTH:     REVOLUTION 

Purpose :  Studying  the  causes  of  the  seasons 

Problem:  Why  do  we  have  a  marked  change  of  seasons, 
while  in  Panama  they  do  not? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Find  out  the  meaning  of  the  terms  orbit,  axis,  equator, 
inclination  of  axis,  and  parallelism  of  axis. 

2.  Compare  and  explain  the  difference  in  the  heating 
effects  of  the  sun's  rays  when  shining  vertically  and 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  Compare  our  latitude  with 
that  of  Panama  and  show  how  this  affects  the  slant  of 
the  sun's  rays  at  the  two  places. 

3.  Why  does  the  sun  appear  so  much  farther  south  in  winter 
than  in  summer?  Show  relation  of  inclination  and 
parallelism  of  axis  to  seasons.  Look  up  the  terms  sol- 
stices and  equinoxes  and  give  their  dates  and  explanation. 

4.  The  earth  is  not  always  the  same  distance  from  the 
sun.  Explain,  and  determine  whether  or  not  this  fact 
has  any  influence  on  the  seasons. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  n- 15;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  6-8, 
11-15;  Arey,  pp.  9-16;  Johnson,  pp.  104-132;  Tarr, 
Physical  Geography,  pp.  15-17 

Conclusions: 

1.  Force  pulling  the  earth  into  its  path  around  the  sun 

2.  Size  and  shape  of  the  earth's  orbit 

3.  Relation  of  revolution  to  time  divisions 

4.  Relation  of  revolution  to  inclination  and  parallelism  of 
axis 


[6  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

5.  Relation  of  slant  of  sun's  rays  to  intensity  of  heating 
effects 

6.  Relation  of  distance  from  equator  to  slant  of  rays 

7.  Means  by  which  heat  gets  from  the  sun  to  the  earth 

S.  Cause  of  varying  length  of  day  and  night  on  most  of 

the  earth 
9.  Midday   altitude   of   the   sun   at   different  seasons  and 

latitudes 

10.  Relation  of  revolution  to  location  of  the  tropics,  polar 
circles,  and  zones  of  temperature 

11.  Place  of  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year 

12.  Relation  of  the  distance  to  the  sun  at  different  times 
of  the  year  to  the  amount  of  heat  received 


Related  Problems : 

1.  Why  is  the  warmest  part  of  the  day  usually  nut  at 
noon,  but  about  two  p.m.  ?  Explain  likewise  why  the 
hottest  part  of  the  summer  does  not  come  at  the  time 
of  the  summer  solstice,  and  the  coldest  part  of  the 
winter  at  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice. 

2 .  If  you  were  in  Panama  at  noon  on  the  following  dates, 
in  what  direction  would  you  point  toward  the  sun: 
March  21,  May  1,  June  21,  August  12,  Septem- 
ber 21,  and  December  21?  (Study  the  globe.) 
(The  teacher  by  use  of  the  ruler  and  prr (tractor  should 
demonstrate  this  to  the  class.) 

3.  Make  drawings  to  show  the  angle  of  sunshine  for 
Omaha  on  the  same  dates  and  compare  with  the 
angles  for  Panama. 

4.  During  about  how  long  a  time  in  the  year  is  the  angle 
of  the  sun's  rays  at  Panama  less  than  it  is  at  Omaha 
on  June  2  1  '     Draw  and  demonstrate  this. 

5.  What  portion  of  the  heat  given  off  by  the  sun  is 
intercepted  bv  the  earth""     (Think  of  the  earth  as 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  17 

being  8,000  miles  in  diameter  and  circular  in  shape, 
and  the  sun  as  being  88,000,000  miles  away.) 

6.  Why  do  the  sun's  rays  never  fall  vertically  farther 
north  than  23^  degrees? 

7 .  Why  are  the  earth's  movements  not  more  noticeable  ? 

6.  RELATION    OF   SEASONS   TO    LIFE   AND   PROGRESS 

Purpose:  Working  out  the  value  of  the  seasons  in  their 
relation  to  man  and  to  plant  and  animal  production 

Problem:  What  advantages  come  to  life  forms  because 
of  a  change  of  seasons,  that  they  would  not  otherwise 
obtain? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Compare  the  length  of  the  periods  of  daylight  on  the 
30th,  45th,  and  60th  parallels  on  a  June  day,  and  explain 
how  the  results  of  your  comparison  account  for  the 
distance  north  that  cereals  may  be  grown.  (See  Mill, 
pp.  23-25.) 

2.  What  of  the  possibility  of  raising  corn  in  the  corn  belt 
of  the  United  States  if  the  earth's  axis  were  not  inclined? 
Explain.  Discuss  the  mating  season  for  the  common 
wild  birds  and  animals  and  show  how  it  is  related  to  the 
problem. 

3.  What  seems  to  be  true  as  to  the  latitudes  in  which  arc 
found  the  highest  degree  of  civilization,  and  how  do 
these  facts  bear  on  the  problem? 

References: 

Dryer,  p.  15;  Mill,  pp.  23-25;  Semple,  The  Influences 
of  Geographic  Environment,  pp.  623-626;  J.  R.  Smith. 
Commerce  and  Industry,  p.  67;  Longmans,  New  School 
Atlas,  p.  7;  wall  maps  of  Europe  and  North  America; 
Johnson,  chap,  viii 

Conclusions : 

1.  Total  amount  of  sunshine  for  a  year  at  any  place  on 
the  earth 


1 8  Studies  in  the  Principles  oj  Geography 

2.  Comparative   length   of   June   and    December   days   in 
middle  and  high  latitudes 

3.  Relation  between  latitude  and  length  of  periods  of  day- 
light 

4.  Comparative  length  of  days  and  nights  at  the  equator 

5.  The  cause  of  the  great  distance  north  that  cereals  may 
be  grown 

6.  Relation  between  latitude  and  human  progress 

7.  Relation   between   latitude   and   the   amount   of   heat 
received  from  the  sun  on  a  given  area 

Related  Problems : 

1.  Compare  the  length  of  June  and  December  days  on 
the  forty-fifth  parallel.     (See  almanac.) 

2 .  Compare  the  total  amount  of  sunshine  received  by  a 
point  on  the  equator  with  that  received  by  the  North 
Pole. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  "midnight  sun"? 

4.  How  would  the  seasons  here  be  changed  if  the  earth's 
axis  were  inclined  45  degrees  instead  of  23^2  degrees? 

5.  In  what  latitude  docs  the  sun  have  an  altitude  of 
44  degrees  at  noon  on  the  vernal  equinox  ?  Summer 
solstice?     Winter  solstice? 

6.  How  wrould  a  slower  or  faster  rate  of  movement  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  affect  the  length  of  seasons  and 
consequently  life  forms? 

7 .  At  what  time  of  the  day  and  year  does  the  sun  shine 
in  at  the  north  windows?     Why? 


7.  EARTH   MEASUREMENTS:   LONGITUDE 
AND   LATITUDE 

Purpose:  Studying  longitude  and  latitude  as  a  means  of 
earth   measurement    and    the    principles    involved    in 

its  use 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  iq 

Problem:  How   are   longitude   and    latitude    related    to 
human  welfare? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  By  what  means  is  one  able  to  locate  a  place  in  a  city? 
In  the  country?  Explain  the  system  of  lines  by  means 
of  which  one  is  enabled  to  locate  a  place  anywhere  on 
the  earth's  surface. 

2.  Give  the  etymology,  origin,  and  meaning  of  the  geo- 
graphic terms  used  in  the  study  of  this  topic. 

3.  Find  out  how  longitude  and  latitude  are  related  to 
(a)  time  divisions;  (5)  land  survey;  (c)  travel  on  the 
seas;   and  (d)  location  of  celestial  bodies. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  10-11;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  14-18; 
Arey,  pp.  17-29;  Holtz,  pp.  106-109;  Mill,  pp.  16-18; 
Dodge,  Advanced  Geography,  pp.  14-15,  18-19;  Tarr 
and  McMurry,  New  Geography,  pp.  201-206;  Johnson, 
pp.  40-44 

Conclusions : 

1.  Use  of  longitude  and  latitude  as  to  location  of  places 

2.  Relation  of  longitude  to  time 

3.  Relation  of  longitude  to  land  survey 

4.  Relation  of  longitude  and  latitude  to  ocean  travel 

5.  Need  and  nature  of  standard  time 

6.  How  to  determine  the  longitude  of  a  place 

7.  Relation  of  time  east  or  west  to  time  here 

Related  Problems : 

1.  How  may  one  determine  his  latitude  by  means  of 
the  north  star? 

2.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  invention,  construc- 
tion, and  use  of  the  compass. 

3.  What  relation  exists  between  (a)  the  inclination  of 
the  earth's  axis  and  the  location  of  the  tropics  and 
polar  circles ;  (b)  the  inclination  of  axis  and  the  width 
of  the  zones  of  heat? 


20  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

4.  Explain  the  solstices  and  equinoxes  as  to  meaning 
and  dates. 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  longitude  of  two  places 
having  nine  hours'  difference  in  time  ? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  in  local  time  between  here 
and  Washington,  D.  C? 

7.  What  is  standard  timer  In  what  time  belt  is  your 
home?  Is  your  local  time  faster  or  slower  than 
standard  time  and  how  much? 

S.  Where  are  (a)  places  with  no  longitude;  (b)  no  lati- 
tude; (c)  no  longitude  or  latitude;  (d)  greatest  longi- 
tude; (e)  greatest  latitude;  (/)  greatest  longitude  and 
latitude  ? 
q.  If  the  earth  were  flat,  how  would  our  scheme  of 
locating  places  operate?  How  about  the  relation  of 
longitude  and  time? 

10.  Explain  how  it  would  be  possible  on  any  clear  day 
at  noon  to  determine  your  longitude  if  you  had  a 
timepiece  which  kept  Greenwich  time.  Tell  of  a 
class  of  people  who  have  need  of  just  such  calcula- 
tions. 

1  r.  How  could  you  determine  your  latitude  by  the  sun 
at  the  time  of  an  equinox? 

T2.  How  much  earlier  or  later  than  your  standard  time 
do  the  time  signals  from  Washington  reach,  your 
city?     From  Chicago?     From  Denver? 

i;v  If  I  start  at  sunrise  and  travel  15  degrees  west  today, 
what  effect  will  it  have  on  the  length  of  my  day? 
What  if  I  travel  east' 

14.  Magellan's  sailors  were  greatly  surprised  to  find, 
when  they  got  back  to  Spain  after  sailing  around  the 
world,  that  'heir  calendar  registered  September  6, 
while  their  home  folks  said  that  it  was  September  7. 
Explain  •'  •   <  rutse  of  their  disagreement. 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  21 

8.  REPRESENTATION    OF   THE    EARTH'S   SURFACE 

Purpose :  Learning  the  construction  of  maps  and  the  use 
and  value  of  different  forms  of  map  projection 

Problem:  What  is  the  value  of  mapping  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  how  is  it  done? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  If  you  want  me  to  know  of  a  friend  of  yours  whom  I 
have  never  met,  how  might  you  proceed?  (Give  at 
least  three  ways.) 

Likewise,  if  you  want  me  to  know  concerning  a  piece 
of  land  or  a  region  which  I  have  never  seen,  how  could 
you  proceed?     (Name  at  least  three  or  four  ways.) 

2.  Study  the  orthographic,  stereographic,  and  globular  map 
projections  on  page  19  of  Dryer,  or  pp.  51,  52  of  Arey, 
comparing  the  distance  apart  of  parallels  and  meridians 
in  different  parts  of  the  maps.  In  each  figure  compare 
the  area  and  shape  of  the  small  rectangular  figures  near 
the  center  with  those  on  the  margin  of  the  maps. 

3.  On  a  Mercator's  map  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  com- 
pare the  area  of  Greenland  with  that  of  South  America. 
Find  the  area  in  square  miles  from  your  textbook  and 
explain  any  anomaly  you  find.  Study  also  any  homolo- 
graphic  map  of  the  world  and  see  if  any  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  Mercator's  are  found. 

Compare  shape  of  North  America  in  each  of  the  above 
maps  with  North  America  on  a  globe  and  explain  the 
cause  of  any  distortions. 

4.  In  each  of  the  following- — orthographic,  stereographic, 
and  globular  projections  —  explain  the  difference  be- 
tween the  polar  and  equatorial  projections  as  to  whether 
the  meridians  and  parallels  are  straight  or  curved  lines. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  18-21;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  24-29; 
Arey,  pp.  50-57;  Mill,  pp.  20-22;  Holtz,  pp.  162-174, 
183-204;  Diercke,  Schul-Atlas,  p.  4;  Johnson,  pp.  190- 
236;   Adams,  Map  Projection 


22  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Conclusions: 

i.  Four  means  of  finding  out  about  any  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface 

2.  Difficulties  in  the  mapping  of  large  areas 

3.  Disadvantages  of  the  globe  for  small  areas 

4.  Accurate  and  inaccurate  parts  of  different  projections 

5.  Principle  features  of  each  of  the  following  maps:  (a) 
orthographic,  (b)  stereographic,  (c)  globular,  (d)  Mer- 
cator's,  (e)  homolographic     (See  Johnson.) 

Related  Problems : 

1.  What  projection  is  used  for  the  maps  on  pages  22 
and  23  of  Dryer? 

2 .  Which  of  the  maps  studied  above  distorts  large  areas 
most  in  respect  to  shape?  Least?  Which  distorts 
most  in  respect  to  comparative  sizes?     Least? 

3.  To  which  of  the  above  projections  is  the  conic  pro- 
jection closely  related?     Bonne's  projection? 

4.  What  is  the  advantage  of  having  so  many  different 
map  projections? 

5 .  What  importance  should  be  attached  to  the  different 
methods  of  map  projection? 

9.  SCALE,  DIRECTION,  AND  LEGEND  OF  MAPS 

Purpose:  Developing  skill  in  the  interpretation  and  use 
of  maps 

Problem:  How  can  you  tell  from  a  map  the  direction  ard 
distance  one  place  is  from  another,  and  by  what 
means  may  one  represent  different  kinds  of  facts  and 
data  on  a  map  ? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Secure  two  maps  of  the  same  region,  one  a  large  and 
the  other  a  small  one,  one  with  and  one  without  an  indi- 
cated scale.  By  means  of  the  map  with  the  scale,  work 
out  the  scale  for  the  other.  Find  a  map  with  the  parallels 
indicated  but  without  a  scale.     Figure  out  the  scale. 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  23 

On  the  same  sheet  of  paper  draw  a  map  of  Nebraska 
and  one  of  Australia,  using  the  same  scale  for  each. 
(Scale:  1  inch  =280  miles.)  First  draw  your  network 
of  meridians  and  parallels,  using  the  conic  projection. 

2.  On  an  outline  map  of  North  America  draw  an  island 
200  miles  long  east  and  west  and  75  miles  wide,  using 
the  same  scale  as  that  of  the  map  and  locating  the 
center  of  the  island  in  25  degrees  North  Latitude  and 
90  degrees  West  Longitude. 

3.  Find  four  maps  of  the  continent  of  North  America,  one 
a  Mercator,  one  a  homolographic,  one  a  conic,  and  one 
a  globular. 

On  each  of  the  maps  place  five  dots  in  five  different 
parts  of  the  map  and  call  them  Ai,  A2,  A3,  A4,  A5. 
One  inch  from  Ai,  in  the  four  cardinal  directions,  make 
dots,  marking  them  N,  E,  W,  and  S.  Do  the  same  for 
each  of  the  A's  on  this  map  and  each  of  the  others. 

4.  Find  illustrations  of  each  of  the  following  maps:  physi- 
cal, rainfall,  vegetation,  density  of  population,  and 
seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall.  Explain  the  means 
by  which  the  information  is  indicated.  Give  other 
kinds  of  data  that  may  be  shown  on  a  map  and  suggest 
how  you  could  indicate  them. 

References : 

Dryer,  pp.  18-21;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  24-29; 
Johnson,  pp.  224-225;  Mill,  pp.  26-35;  textbooks  and 
commercial  geographies;    Adams,  Map  Projection 

Conclusions : 

1.  Two  ways  of  finding  the  scale  of  a  map  when  it  is  not 
given 

2.  Nature  of  the  network  for  drawing  maps 

3.  Directions  on  the  Mercator,  homolographic,  and  globular 
projections 

4.  Means  of  showing  different  kinds  of  data  on  a  map 

5.  The  relation  of  directions  on  maps  to  meridians  and 
parallels 

3 


24  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

6.  Comparative  shape  of  maps  of  the  same  region  on  differ- 
ent projections 

7.  Accuracy  of  the  scale  in  different  parts  of  the  same  map 

8.  Shortest  distance  between  two  points  on  a  map 

Related  Problems : 

1.  Which  way  is  north  on  a  polar  projection? 

2.  Find  a  map  on  which  the  top,  bottom,  right,  and  left 
sides  are  all  south. 

3 .  Find  a  map  of  North  America  the  top  of  which  may 
be  east,  west,  or  north;  the  right  side  north,  east,  or 
south;  the  left  margin  north,  south,  or  west;  and  the 
bottom  of  the  map  cast,  west,  or  south. 

4.  In  Diercke's  Schid- Atlas ,  by  means  of  the  parallels, 
find  the  scale  in  miles  of  the  maps  on  pages  29,  31, 
62,  and  68  (Guadeloupe). 

5.  The  shortest  distance  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco would  pass  to  the  north  or  south  of  Chicago? 

6.  Explain  the  difference  in  the  shape  of  North 
America  in  Figs.  10  and  11,  also  14  and  15,  in  Dryer. 

7.  Why  the  apparent  difference  in  size  of  South 
America  in  Figs.  10  and  11,  Dryer? 

10.  THE    TOPOGRAPHIC    MAP 

Purpose:  To  learn  how  the  government  shows  the  lay  of 
the  land  and  other  features  of  physical  and  human 
interest  on  the  topographic  map  of  the  United  States 

Problem:  How  are  the  different  surface  and  humanistic 
features  of  land  area  represented  on  the  topographic 
map  of  the  United  States? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Study  a  contour  map  that  includes  a  portion  of  both 
land  and  sea  within  its  area.  What  is  the  elevation  of 
the  shore  line?     What  is  the  contour  interval?     The 


The  Earth  as  a  Whole  25 

scale  of  the  map?  The  elevation  of  the  brown  line 
nearest  the  shore  line?  The  elevation  of  the  first 
accentuated  brown  line? 

2.  What  is  the  highest  point  on  the  map?    Are  there  any 
hills?    How  are  they  shown? 

3.  How  are  river  valleys  shown?     How  tell  whether  a 
valley  is  deep  or  shallow? 

4.  How  tell  whether  a  slope  is  long  or  steep? 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  15-18;  Dryer,  pp.  39,  41; 
topographic  sheets  of  United  States  Geological  Survey; 
Salisbury,  p.  10 

Conclusions : 

1.  Meaning  of  contour  lines  and  intervals 

2.  Meaning  of  contours  close  together 

3.  How  contour  lines  indicate  valleys  and  hills 

4.  Why  contour  intervals  are  not  the  same  for  all  maps 

5.  How  the  scale  of  miles  is  shown  and  its  meaning 

6.  Color  scheme  used  on  topographic  map  of  United  States 

Related  Problems : 

1.  How  are  some  of  the  cultural  features  shown  on  a 
topographic  map  ? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  features  in  blue  on  a  topo- 
graphic map? 

3.  Devise  a  scheme  whereby  with  plaster  of  Paris  or 
Portland  cement  you  can  represent  an  island  2  miles 
long  and  1^2  miles  wide  with  an  extreme  elevation 
of  275  feet.  Submerge  this  model  in  water  and, 
by  taking  off  just  one  inch  of  water  at  a  time,  draw 
the  contour  lines.  Indicate  by  a  black  line  the  best 
road  to  the  summit  of  the  hill,  and  in  blue  indicate 
a  stream  flowing  down  the  most  appropriate  place. 

4.  State  several  values  of  topographic  maps  to  the 
public. 


III.     DIVISIONS   OF   THE   EARTH'S   SURFACE: 
LAND   AND   SEA 

PROJECT 

This  project  seeks  to  develop  the  principles  involved  in 
the  making  of  coastal  features  of  land  and  water,  in  the 
movement  of  the  waters  of  the  sea,  and  in  the  relation- 
ship of  each  to  the  making  of  harbors  and  to  ocean 
traffic. 

11.  SHORE   LINES   AND   HARBORS 

Purpose :  Studying  how  coastal  features  are  made  and  the 
relation  of  these  features  to  the  economy  of  labor,  com- 
merce, and  travel 

Problem:  What  coastal  features  result  from  a  rising  or 
sinking  of  the  land,  and  what  economic  relationships 
result  from  such  movements? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

i.  Explain  the  making  of  bays,  straits,  promontories, 
estuaries,  capes,  etc.  Define  and  illustrate  each.  Find 
out  why  some  coasts  are  rougher  and  some  more  even 
than  others. 

Explain  continental  islands  and  shelves  and  what  they 
are  good  for.     Illustrate. 

2.  Study  the  location  of  some  important  coastal  cities  and 
see  if  you  can  determine  the  coastal  features  that  have 
contributed  to  their  growth.  Study  to  learn  the  factors 
that  contribute  to  the  making  of  good  harbors. 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  different  types  of  coast  line  on 
commerce  and  industry?     Illustrate. 

How  does  the  hinterland  of  a  coast  affect  the  usefulness 
of  its  harbors?     Explain  in  full. 

26 


Divisions  of  the  Earth's  Surface:  Land  and  Sea    27 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  162-170;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  514- 
5.34;  Arey,  pp.  423-433;  Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geo- 
graphic Environment,  pp.  242,  287;  Gregory-Keller-Bishop, 
Physical  and  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  18-33;  Hotchkiss, 
Index;   Tarr,  pp.  313-331 

Conclusions: 

1.  Cause  of  bays,  straits,  estuaries,  promontories,  etc. 

2.  Value  of  islands  and  continental  shelves 

3.  Qualities  of  a  good  harbor 

4.  Relation  of  hinterland  to  harbors 

5.  Cause  of  rugged  coast  lines  and  their  value 

6    Cause  of  low-lying  coast  lines  and  their  value 

7.  How  some  coasts  are  barriers  and  some  invite  invasion 
by  enemies 

8.  Relation  of  irregularity  to  length  of  coastline 

Related  Problems : 

1.  Why  are  there  so  few  important  harbors  on  the 
western  coast  of  North  America? 

2.  Account  for  the  narrow  strip  of  deep  water  leading 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  out  through  the  Gulf 
to  the  ocean.     (See  physical  map.) 

3.  Account  for  the  lowlands  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
California. 

4.  Why  was  Manhattan  Island  a  good  place  to  start  a 
city?     (See  Dryer,  p.  171;  Hotchkiss,  pp.  177-197.) 

5.  Why  are  harbors  more  plentiful  on  the  north  than 
on  the  south  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States? 

6.  Why  are  the  North  Sea  and  Newfoundland  Banks 
such  good  fields  for  the  fishing  industry? 

7.  Account  for  Long  Island,  Newfoundland,  and  the 
British  Isles. 

8.  Account  for  the  location  of  San  Francisco,  Portland, 
and  Seattle.  (See  Dryer,  pp.  416-417;  Hotchkiss, 
pp.  1-42.) 


28  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

9.  Study  a  map  of  Boston  Harbor  and  determine  why 
it  is  a  good  place  for  a  city.     (See  Dryer,  p.  330; 
Hotchkiss,  pp.  161-176.) 
10.  Why  does  Europe  have  more  coast  line  in  proportion 
to  its  area  than  any  other  continent? 

12.  MOVEMENTS   OF   THE   WATERS   OF   THE   SEA 

Purpose:  Learning  the  nature  of  ocean  waves,  tides,  and 
currents  and  their  economic  relationships 

Problem:  How  account  for  the  movement  of  the  waters 
of  the  sea,  and  what  is  the  value  of  this  movement  to 
mankind? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find  out  the  cause  of  storm  waves  and  what  influence 
they  have  in  the  making  of  beaches,  bars,  spits,  sea 
cliffs,  etc.  Study  their  relation  to  the  making  of  harbors. 
Compare  the  influence  of  waves  on  shipping  in  the 
present  day  with  that  in  earlier  times. 

Explain  breakers,  whitecaps,  and  undertow  and  their 
value. 

2.  Find  the  cause  and  frequency  of  the  tides  and  how  the 
value  of  many  harbors  depends  on  their  movement. 

3.  From  maps  of  the  prevailing  winds  and  the  ocean  cur- 
rents learn  the  names  and  study  the  direction  of  move- 
ments of  currents  just  north  and  south  of  the  equator 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  and  see  if  you  can 
find  any  relation  between  their  direction  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  prevailing  winds  in  these  regions. 
Explain  how  currents  aid  in  ocean  transportation  and 
distribution  of  temperature. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  150-159;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  226- 
255;  Arey,  pp.  195-215;  Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geo- 
graphic Environment,  pp.  292-315;  Gregory,  pp.  6-1S; 
Tarr,  pp.  205,  213,  219 


Divisions  of  the  Earth's  Surface:  Land  and  Sea     29 

Conclusions: 

1.  Causes  of  storm  waves 

2.  Economic  relations  of  waves  to  coasts,  harbors,  etc. 

3.  Cause  of  tides  and  their  periodic  movements 

4.  Relation  of  tides  to  harbors  and  ocean  traffic 

5.  Cause  of  ocean  currents 

6.  Effect  of  ocean  currents  on  distribution  of  temperature 
and  on  ocean  travel  and  transportation 

Related  Problems : 

1 .  Why  do  the  tides  come  nearly  an  hour  later  each  day  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  high  and  low,  ebb  and  flood, 
spring  and  neap  tides  ?  Tell  of  tidal  bores  and  their 
economic  effects. 

3.  Locate  and  give  the  cause  of  the  great  eddies  in  the 
oceans. 

4.  How  can  the  moon  cause  two  tides  at  once? 

5.  How  fast,  how  wide,  and  how  deep  is  the  flow  of 
ocean  currents?     (See  Longmans,  p.  3.) 

6.  What  is  a  Sargossa  Sea? 

7.  Distinguish  between  ocean  current  and  ocean  drift. 
Illustrate. 

8.  Is  sea-sickness  more  likely  to  occur  in  large  or  small 
boats  ?     Why  ? 

9.  Tell  of  the  value  of  breakers  and  undertow  and  their 
relation  to  each  other. 

10.  Why  do  so  many  steamship  lines  converge  near  the 
mouth  of  many  great  rivers? 

13.  THE   SEA  AS  A   HIGHWAY 
Purpose:  Studying  the  evolution  of  navigation  and  how 
it  has  affected  commerce  and  developed  a  sense  of 
human  kinship  among  the  nations  of  the  world 

Problem:  How  has  the  conquest  of  the  ocean  influenced 
the  spread  and  development  of  civilization? 


30  Studies  in   the  Principles  of  Geography 

Studying  the  Problem : 

i .  What  motive  power  was  used  by  Columbus  in  propelling 
his  ships  across  the  Atlantic?  Why?  How  long  did 
it  take  him  to  make  the  trip?  Why  was  practically  all 
ocean  traffic  before  the  time  of  Columbus  limited  to 
coastwise  trade? 

2.  What  motive  power  is  used  today  on  all  important 
ocean-going  vessels?  How  long  does  it  take  to  go 
from  New  York  to  London?  Compare  the  effect  of 
storms  on  ocean-going  vessels  of  today  with  the  effect 
on  those  of  one  hundred  or  more  years  ago,  and  give 
reasons. 

3 .  How  does  the  volume  and  rate  of  exchange  of  goods  over 
the  seas  compare  with  those  of  a  century  ago?  Give 
reasons.  How  has  the  ocean  cable  and  wireless  tele- 
graph influenced  the  relations  between  peoples  of  dif- 
ferent continents? 

4.  Study  the  comparative  cost  of  railway  and  ocean  trans- 
portation. Likewise,  study  competition  as  affecting 
these  means  of  transportation. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  157-159  and  324;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
pp.  226-255;  Arey,  pp.  212-215;  Gregory,  pp.  172-173; 
Smith,  pp.  684-692;   Robinson,  pp.  26-28  and  74-77 

Conclusions: 

1.  Causes  of  difference  in  the  cost  of  land  and  sea  trans- 
portation 

2.  Importance  of  the  sea  as  a  highway 

3.  Influence  of  modern  motive  power  on  the  interrelation 
and  interdependence  of  peoples 

4.  Place  of  the  ocean  cable  and  wireless  as  related  to  traffic 
on  the  sea 

5.  Cause  of  the  ocean's  becoming  a  great  international 
highway  instead  of  a  great  international  barrier 

6.  Main  directions  of  ocean  traffic 

7.  Relation  of  winds  and  currents  to  ocean  transportation 


Divisions  of  the  Earth's  Surface:  Land  and  Sea     31 

Related  Problems: 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  neutralization  of  the  seas, 
and  what  influences  have  brought  it  about? 

2.  Discuss  the  possibility  of  the  sea  serving  as  the 
home  of  man. 

3.  Do  you  consider  the  ocean  a  barrier  or  a  stimulus 
to  international  progress  and  felicity?     Why? 

4.  What  relation  do  fogs  and  icebergs  bear  to  ocean 
travel?     Explain. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  "establishment  of  port"? 

6.  What  are  monsoon  currents,  and  how  have  they 
affected  ocean  traffic? 

7.  Why  is  there  so  much  strife  among  nations  regard- 
ing coast  lines  ? 

8.  Why  should  coastal  cities  be  so  ambitious  to  build 
high-class  steamship  terminals? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  line  traffic  and  charter  traffic  on 
the  seas? 

10.  What  is  a  merchant  marine,  and  what  factors  favor 
the  building-up  of  a  large  one? 

1 1 .  Why  should  Great  Britain  be  so  extensively  engaged 
in  the  shipping  business? 

1 2 .  What  is  a  "  tramp ' '  steamboat  ? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  ballasting  a  vessel,  and  what 
materials  are  used? 

14.  What  are  the  principal  barriers  to  world  commerce 
and  transportation? 

15.  Compare  the  oceans  in  respect  to  volume  of  traffic 
over  them. 

16.  Contrast  the  nature  of  the  east-and-west  traffic  as 
to  commodities  with  that  of  the  north-and-south 
traffic. 

1 7 .  What  determines  the  rates  for  ocean  transportation  ? 

18.  Why  are  Honolulu  and  Samoa  called  "the  cross- 
roads of  the  Pacific"? 


IV.     THE   SURFACE   OF   THE    LAND: 
TOPOGRAPHY 

PROJECT 

This  project  seeks  to  develop  the  relation  of  the  lay 
of  the  land  and  its  possible  production  to  the  rise  and 
development  of  the  people  who  dwell  upon  it. 

14.  THE   GEOGRAPHY    OF    LOWLANDS 

Purpose:  Investigating  into  the  nature  of  lowlands  and 
their  relation  to  human  progress 

Problem:  Why    are    lowlands    the    regions    of    greatest 
human  activity? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  From  physical  maps  of  the  world  or  the  continents 
locate  the  principal  lowland  regions  of  the  earth.  On 
an  outline  map  of  the  world  color  these  lowlands  in  green. 
In  connection  with  them  study  a  map  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  population  and  state  any  relationship  you 
find.  Consider  some  of  the  great  civilizations  of  the 
past  and  estimate  what  portion  of  them  were  found  in 
lowlands. 

2.  Show  how  civilization  is  dependent  on  agriculture  and 
how  lowlands  are  well  adapted  to  agricultural  pursuits. 
How  do  facilities  for  land  and  water  transportation  and 
travel  compare  on  lowlands  with  those  on  other  types  of 
topography? 

3.  What  climatic  factors  need  consideration  when  you  are 
studying  the  relation  of  lowlands  to  human  activity; 
for  example,  the  lowlands  of  Siberia  and  the  valleys  of 
the  Amazon  and  Congo? 

32 


The  Surface  of  the  Land:  Topography  33 

4.  In  the  appendix  of  your  text  find  a  list  of  the  twenty- 
five  largest  cities  of  the  world  and  see  how  many  of 
them  are  not  located  near  sea  level  on  lowlands. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  52-53;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  489-512; 
Arey,  pp.  360-362;  Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geographic 
Environment,  pp.  473-524;  Robinson,  pp.  17-18;  Greg- 
ory, pp.  38-48;   Tarr,  p.  332 

Conclusions : 

1.  Relation  between  elevation  and  density  of  population 

2.  Relation  of  lowlands  to  the  building  of  highways  and 
railways 

3.  Relation  of  lowlands  to  navigable  rivers 

4.  Relation  between  the  location  of  large  cities  and  that  of 
lowlands 

5.  Location  of  best  agricultural  lands  in  relation  to  low- 
lands 

6.  Why  some  lowlands  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule 

7.  Climate  of  lowlands  as  compared  with  highlands 

8.  Lowlands  and  the  world's  food  supply 

Related  Problems: 

1.  What  do  you  know  of  the  elevation  of  the  region 
which  cradled  the  Christian  religion  ? 

2.  Name  several  kinds  of  plains  and  tell  how  each  is 
made. 

3.  What  proportion  of  the  people  of  the  world  live 
below  1,000  feet  elevation? 

4.  Why  is  the  Laurentian  peneplain  an  unproductive 
agricultural  region? 

5.  Wherein  lay  the  value  of  the  great  central  plain  of 
the  United  States? 

6.  Why  does  the  density  of  population  decrease  as  one 
goes  eastward  across  Eurasia? 


34  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

7.  Contrast  the  human  activity  of  the  Amazon  with 
that  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  give  reasons. 

8.  Show  why  the  basic  occupation  in  California  now 
is  very  different  from  what  it  was  in  the  early  history 
of  the  state. 

9.  Why  are  lowlands  the  regions  in  which  commerce 
and  manufacturing  flourish  best? 

10.  What   are   alluvial,    lacustrine,    and    delta    plains? 
Illustrate. 

1 1 .  How  were  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coastal  plains  made  ? 

12.  Why  have  plains  deeper  and  more  fertile  soils  than 
plateaus  or  mountains? 

15.  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  PLATEAU  REGIONS 

Purpose:   Studying  the  economic  and  human  relation- 
ships involved  in  adaptations  to  plateau  environments 

Problem:  Why  are  plateau  peoples  likely  to  be  lacking 
in  progressiveness  ? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find  out  the  relation  in  position  and  elevation  of  pla- 
teaus to  plains  and  mountains,  and  state  the  relation 
these  factors  bear  to  accessibility,  rainfall,  temperature, 
etc. 

What  can  you  say  concerning  the  character  of  the  sur- 
face, and  how  does  this  affect  travel,  communication, 
and  transportation? 

Color  the  important  plateaus  of  the  world  in  orange  or 
yellow  on  an  outline  map  of  the  world. 

2.  Judging  from  a  study  of  the  rainfall  on  the  principal 
plateaus  of  the  world,  what  in  general  would  be  the  status 
of  agriculture  and  the  consequent  occupations  of  the 
people?  Will  or  will  not  plateau  regions  support  a 
dense  population?  Keeping  in  mind  the  answers  to  the 
preceding  questions,  how  would  you  say  that  plateaus 
affect  the  intercourse  of  peoples  among  themselves  and 


The  Surface  of  the  Land:   Topography  35 

with  the  rest  of  the  world  outside  of  their  own  habitat? 
See  if  you  can  now  give  a  good  answer  to  the  problem. 

References: 

Dryer,  p.  53;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  485-486 
Arey,  pp.  366-375;  Gregory,  pp.  48-50;  Robinson,  p.  18 
Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment,  Index 
Tarr,  p.  334 

Conclusions : 

1.  How  plateaus  are  maae 

2.  Influence  of  age  on  the  relief  of  plateaus 

3.  Cause  of  deeply  intrenched  streams  in  some  plateaus 

4.  Origin  of  mesas,  buttes,  etc. 

5.  Climate  of  plateaus 

6.  Density  of  population  on  plateaus 

7.  Intercourse  between  plateau  peoples 

8.  Interrelation  and  interdependence  of  plateau  peoples 

9.  Character  of  the  people  in  general 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Tell  of  the  character  and  progressiveness  of  the 
people  of  the  Mexican,  Iberian,  and  Allegheny- 
Cumberland  plateaus  and  how  they  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  problem. 

2.  How  could  you  tell  an  uplifted  peneplain  from  a 
plateau? 

3.  Why  are  houses  in  arid  plateaus  often  built  with 
flat  roofs  and  thick  walls  ?  What  building  materials 
are  generally  used? 

4.  Why  are  the  Cumberland  and  Allegheny  plateaus 
usually  called  mountains? 

5.  How  distinguish  between  mountains  and  plateaus? 

6.  Why  is  the  Cumberland  so  much  rougher  than  the 
Colorado  plateau? 

7.  Study  a  vegetation  map  of  plateau  regions  and 
explain  cause  and  nature  of  vegetation  found  thereon. 


36  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

8.  Study  a  railroad  map  of  the  United  States  and  see 
how  many  railroads  there  are  on  the  Colorado, 
Columbia,  and  Cumberland  plateaus  and  compare 
with  the  number  on  the  plains  of  Iowa  and  Illinois. 
Give  reasons  for  the  difference. 

9.  Why  have  the  Colorado  and  Columbia  rivers  cut 
such  deep  gorges  in  the  plateaus  through  which  they 
flow? 

10.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  New  England  and  Pied- 
mont plateaus. 

16.  THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF   MOUNTAINS 

Purpose:  Evaluating  the  influences  that  operate  in 
the  adaptation  of  life  forms  to  a  mountain  environ- 
ment and  the  responses  to  these  forces 

Problem:  How  do  mountains  sometimes  promote  and 
sometimes  hinder  progress  in  civilization? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Locate  and  give  direction  and  relative  heights  of  the 
principal  mountain  ranges  of  the  earth. 

How  are  mountains  formed?     (Name  three  ways.) 

Why  are  some  mountains  higher  and  some  rougher  than 

others? 

Explain  how  mountains  may  act  as  a  barrier  to  plants, 

animals,  and  man  in  their  movements,  and  upon  what 

the  effectiveness  of  the  barrier  depends. 

2.  Find  out  what  you  can  concerning  the  relation  between 
mountains  and  the  distribution  of  temperature  and 
moisture. 

On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  color  in  brown  the 
mountain  regions  of  the  earth. 

3.  Study  the  relations  of  mountains  to  mining,  timber, 
power,  irrigation,  health,  and  recreation. 


The  Surface  of  the  Land:  Topography  37 

4.  What  influence  do  passes  in  mountains  have  upon  their 
effectiveness  as  barriers  to  migrations  of  plants,  animals, 
and  man? 

On  physical  maps  of  North  America  and  Europe  locate 
and  name  some  of  the  principal  passes,  and  see  if  you 
can  find  anything  of  historical  interest  connected  with 
any  of  them. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  54-59;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  465-485; 
Arey,  pp.  376-401;  Gregory,  pp.  50-54;  Herbertson,  pp. 
43-48;  Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment, 
pp.  524-607;  Tarr,  pp.  93-111;  Brigham,  Geographic 
Influences  in  American  History,  chap,  iii 

Conclusions: 

1.  Three  ways  in  which  mountains  are  formed 

2.  Effect  of  mountains  on  the  migration  of  life  forms 

3.  Mountains  and  the  distribution  of  rainfall 

4.  Relation  of  mountains  to  the  distribution  of  temperature 

5.  Mountains  protecting  people  and  nations 

6.  Mountains  as  a  barrier  to  progress 

7.  Mountains  as  a  storehouse  for  valuable  human  neces- 
sities 

8.  Relation  of  mountains  to  timberlands 

9.  Why  mining  is  easy  in  mountains 

10.  Mountains  in  relation  to  health  and  recreation 

11.  Density  of  population  in  mountains 

12.  Mountains  in  their  relation  to  power,   irrigation,  and 
boundary  lines 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  See  if  you  can  find  how  the  passes  of  the  Carpathians 
and  the  mountains  themselves  were  a  marked  factor 
in  the  World  War. 

2.  What  route  did  Daniel  Boone  take  when  he  emi- 
grated over  into  Kentucky?  How  long  after  the 
first  English  settlement  in  America,  and  what  was 


38  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

the  significance  of  the  fact?     (See  Brigham,  From 
Trail  to  Railway  through  the  Appalachians,  pp.  142- 

I54-) 

3.  What  would  have  been  the  effect  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States  if  the  Appalachians  had 
been  as  high  as  the  Rockies  or  the  Sierra  Nevadas? 
What  if  the  Appalachians  had  extended  east  and 
west  in  the  latitude  of  New  York  City? 

4.  Tell  how  the  southern  Appalachians  were  used  by 
the  generals  of  the  Federal  and  Confederate  forces 
in  the  Civil  War  in  screening  the  operations  of  their 
armies  and  raiding  expeditions.  (See  Brigham, 
Geographic  Influences  in  American  History,  pp. 
218-229,  and  Semple,  American  History  and  Its 
Geographic  Conditions,  p.  290.) 

5 .  Show  how  the  Hoosac  Mountains  in  western  Massa- 
chusetts caused  Boston  to  lose  her  place  as  the  most 
important  port  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United 
vStates.  (See  Brigham,  From  Trail  to  Railway  through 
the  Appalachians,  pp.  1-13.) 

6.  Compare  and  contrast  the  means  of  making  a  living 
on  mountains  and  lowlands  in  the  temperate  and 
torrid  zones. 

7.  Why  are  there  fine  forests  on  the  west  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas' 

8.  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  drive  a  mountain  people 
out  of  their  possessions?  Illustrate  by  a  concrete 
example. 


V.     THE   SURFACE   OF  THE   LAND: 
HYDROGRAPHY 

PROJECT 

In  this  project  we  expect  to  show  how  the  waters  of 
the  land  have  been  an  important  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  countries  and  the  progress  of  peoples. 

17.  THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF   RIVERS 

Purpose:  To  study  the  life  history  of  rivers  and  their 
role  in  the  development  of  new  regions 

Problem:  How  does  a  river  get  its  valley,  what  are  the 
steps  in  its  development,  and  how  may  man's  interests 
be  served  at  different  stages  of  its  evolution? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  If  possible,  study  the  effects  of  running  water  on  a  bare 
slope  during  or  just  after  a  rainstorm,  or  in  the  spring 
at  the  time  of  the  melting  of  the  snow. 

2.  How  does  a  valley  become  deeper,  longer,  and  wider? 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  young,  mature,  and  old  streams 
and  valleys? 

4.  How  can  man  use  a  young  stream?  What  factors  limit 
its  use  for  navigation? 

5.  At  what  stages  in  the  life  of  a  river  can  it  serve  the 
following  interests  of  man  best:  transportation,  power, 
fishing? 

6.  Which  type  of  valley  development  serves  man's  interests 
best? 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  215-245;  Dryer,  pp.  72- 
112;  Salisbury,  pp.  73-148;  Tarr,  pp.  261-288;  Semple, 
The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment 

4  39 


40  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 


Conclusions : 


i.  How  a  stream  gathers  and  carries  its  load 

2.  Factors  in  the  rate  of  stream  erosion 

3.  Stages  in  the  life  history  of  a  stream  and  its  valley 

4.  How  a  stream  becomes  longer,  wider,  and  deeper 

5.  How  different  stages  of  development  affect  human  activ- 
ity 

6.  Cause  and  effects  of  canons,  gorges,  falls,  rapids,  etc. 

7.  Cause  and  nature  of  stream  deposits  and  their  relations 
to  man 

Related  Problems: 

t.  How   is   ground   water  related   to   permanency   of 
streams  ? 

2.  How  is  elevation  related  to  erosion  by  streams? 

3.  Upon    what    does    the    durability    of    stream-built 
features  depend? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  features  of  a  topographic  ma]) 
that  would  indicate  the  age  of  a  stream? 

5.  Account  for  the  importance  of  five  of  the  greatest 
river  systems  of  the  world. 

6.  Contrast  the  importance  of  the  Yangste  River  with 
that  of  the  Mackenzie. 

18.  THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF   LAKES 

Purpose:  To  study  the  origin  and  value  of  lakes 

Problem:  How  are  lakes  made,  what  becomes  of  them, 
and  of  what  value  are  they  to  man0 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  How  were  the  numerous  lakes  of  Minnesota  and  Canada 
formed?  Where  are  other  lakes  that  were  formed  in 
the  same  way? 

2.  Account  for  the  lakes  found  in  the  valley  floor  of  some 
old  streams. 


The  Surface  of  the  Land:  Hydrography  41 

3.  Explain  the  formation  of  volcanic  lakes. 

4.  How  are  streams  and  lakes  natural  enemies? 

5.  What  are  finger  lakes,  how  are  they  formed,  and  where 
may  several  be  found? 

6.  What  are  the  earmarks  of  fossil  lakes? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  economic  values  of  lakes? 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  103,  no,  124-128;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
pp.  239,  246,  261,  264,  302;  Salisbury,  pp.  213-237;  Arey, 
pp.  215-227;  Tarr,  p.  291;  Semple,  The  Influences  of 
Geographic   Environment 

Conclusions : 

1 .  How  glacial  lakes  are  made 

2.  The  making  of  ox-bow  or  horseshoe  lakes 

3.  The  making  of  volcanic  lakes 

4.  Relation  of  streams  to  lakes 

5.  Determination  of  the  site  of  fossil  lakes 

6.  The  economic  value  of  lakes 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Account  for  the  fossil  lakes  Agassiz  and  Bonneville. 

2.  What  are  the  special  values  of  the  lakes  of  New 
England  ? 

3.  Why  are  the  Great  Lakes  of  the  United  States  of 
so  much  importance? 

4.  Explain  how  vegetation  operates  in  the  destruction 
of  lakes. 

5.  Why  are  some  old  lake  beds  very  valuable  for  agri- 
culture while  others  may  be  valuable  for  something 
else? 

6.  Account  for  the  importance  of  five  of  the  great 
lakes  of  the  world  other  than  the  Great  Lakes  of 
the  United  States. 

7.  How  did  fresh-water  Lake  Bonneville  change  into 
the  Great  Salt  Lake? 


42  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

19.  THE   GEOGRAPHY   OF   UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

Purpose:  To  study  the  source,   movements,  and  value 
of  underground  waters 

Problem:  In  what  ways  is  underground  water  of  great 
value  to  plants,  animals,  and  man? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  Define  ground  water,  capillary  zone,  saturated  zone, 
and  water  table. 

2.  Where  does  the  water  come  from  that  goes  into  the 
ground  after  a  rain? 

3.  What  is  a  well,  spring,  artesian,  or  flowing  well? 

4.  How  does  underground  water  circulate?  How  much 
is  there  of  it? 

5.  How  does  deforestation  lower  the  water  table? 

6.  Why  is  ground  water  of  so  much  importance  to  plants? 

7.  What  causes  the  difference  between  good  and  poor 
wells?  Constant  and  intermittent  springs?  High  and 
low  water  table? 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  205-215;  Dryer,  pp.  132- 
135;  Salisbury,  pp.  45-72;  Arey,  pp.  270-283;  Tarr,  pp. 
240-248 

Conclusions: 

1.  Factors  determining  amount  and  rate  of  movement  of 
underground  water 

2.  Nature  of  the  movement  of  underground  water 

3.  Causes  for  difference  in  depth  of  water  table 

4.  How  and  from  where  plants  get  water 

5.  Importance  of  ground  water  to  man 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  Account  for  the  action  of  geysers  and  hot  springs. 

2.  How  are  natural  caves  formed? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  interesting  features  of  cavern 
life? 


The  Surface  of  the  Land:    Hydrography  43 

4.  What  are  the  factors  that  favor  or  hinder  solution 
by  ground  water? 

5.  Describe  the  different  methods  of  digging  wells. 

6.  How  important  are  lakes  in  furnishing  water  supply 
for  cities? 

7.  Illustrate  by  means  of  drawings  properly  labeled 
the  position  of  water  table,  capillary  zone,  saturated 
zone,  spring,  wells,  marsh,  lakes. 

8.  Why  are  rainy  spells  in  spring  more  productive  of 
floods  than  equally  intensive  rainy  spells  in  autumn  ? 

9.  How  deep  may  ground  water  extend  ?  Give  reasons 
for  your  answer. 


VI.     THE   ATMOSPHERE 
PROJECT 

This  project  aims  to  develop  the  principles  underlying 
the  importance  of  air  and  its  movements,  the  relation 
of  the  atmospheric  envelope  to  the  life  forms  dependent 
upon  it,  and  to  give  sufficient  practice  in  these  principles 
to  enable  one  to  use  them  in  everyday  life. 

20.  COMPOSITION   AND   USE 

Purpose:  Studying  the  composition  of  the  air  and  the 
value  of  its  component  parts  in  the  economy  of  plant 
and  animal  production 

Problem :  What  are  the  principal  elements  of  which  the  air 
is  composed,  and  how  is  life  on  earth  affected  by  each? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  What  is  the  air  composed  of,  and  what  is  the  average 
percentage  of  each  part?  Explain  the  cause  of  hazi- 
ness of  the  air  at  times  and  why  it  is  worse  at  some 
times  than  others.  By  what  means  is  disease  carried 
in  the  air? 

2.  What  element  of  the  air  is  the  most  essential  to  man  and 
animals,  and  what  is  the  use  of  this  element  in  the 
body?  When  a  piece  of  wood  burns,  how  is  the  air 
involved  in  the  process?  In  what  way  is  air  involved 
in  the  rusting  of  iron  or  the  decay  of  organic  matter? 
How  is  the  supply  of  this  element  kept  up? 

3.  Which  gas  of  the  atmosphere  is  the  most  useful  to  plant 
growth,  and  from  where  does  the  constant  supply  come? 

4.  Explain  how  nitrogen  is  useful  to  plant  and  animal 
life  and  see  if  you  can  find  out  how  plants  and  animals 
get  their  supply  of  this  element. 

44 


The  Atmosphere  45 

5.  The  other  important  gas  of  the  atmosphere  is  water 
vapor.  What  is  its  chief  use,  and  how  is  the  supply 
kept  up? 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  172-174;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  44-54; 
Arey,  pp.  65-72;  Gregory,  p.  93;  Milham,  Meteorology, 
pp.  6-17;  Dodge,  pp.  42-43;  Tarr  and  McMurry,  Book  I, 
P-  54 

Conclusions : 

1.  Position  of  the  atmosphere 

2.  Composition  of  the  atmosphere 

3 .  Principal  function  of  each  component  part  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  plant  and  animal  economy 

4.  Means  by  which  a  constant  supply  of  each  element  is 
kept  up 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  Why  does  the  total  quantity  of  carbondioxide  in  the 
air  vary  during  the  year,  i.  e.,  from  summer  to 
winter  ? 

2.  Compare  the  quantities  of  carbondioxide  in  the  air  in 
city  and  country,  and  state  how  equalization  may 
take  place. 

3.  The  newest  electric  incandescent  lamps  are  filled 
with  nitrogen  instead  of  being  made  a  vacuum. 
Give  reasons.     Why  are  they  not  filled  with  oxygen  ? 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  advisability  of  keeping 
plants  in  a  sleeping  room? 

5.  How  can  rain  purify  the  air? 

6.  Why  do  we  ventilate  our  houses?  Give  evils  of 
poor  ventilation. 

7.  Why  is  it  not  correct  to  say  that  "the  earth  is  sur- 
rounded by  air"? 

8.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  a  greatly  increased 
quantity  of  oxygen  or  carbondioxide  in  the  air' 


46  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

9.  Why  is  a  candle  so  quickly  extinguished  when  in 
a  closed  glass  jar?  How  may  this  be  used  to  show 
the  need  of  ventilation  in  living  and  sleeping  rooms  ? 

10.  Why  do  lamps  need  to  be  ventilated?  What  makes 
a  lamp  or  stove  sometimes  "smoke"? 

11.  Why  is  silver  less  subject  to  rust  than  steel  cutlery? 

1 2 .  Why  will  a  jar  of  fruit  spoil  after  it  has  been  unsealed 
unless  it  is  soon  consumed  ? 

13.  Why  is  a  surgeon  so  careful  about  sterilizing  his 
instruments  and  all  other  accessories  used  when 
performing  an  operation? 

14.  Explain  why  it  is  necessary  to  disinfect  and  fumi- 
gate buildings  in  which  there  have  been  persons 
with  contagious  diseases. 

15.  Why  do  plants  thrive  better  than  animals  in  hot 
marshy  lowlands? 

16.  Explain  why  country  air  is  freer  from  impurities 
than  city  air. 

17.  How  is  it  known  how  high  the  air  extends? 

18.  Why  is  nitrogen  so  important  in  the  manufacture 
of  high  explosives? 

19.  Why  do  most  of  the  compounds  in  nature  have 
some  oxygen  in  them? 

21.  ELASTICITY    OF    THE   AIR 

Purpose :  Studying  the  influence  of  variations  in  tempera- 
ture upon  the  volume  and  weight  of  air 

Problem:  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  that  the  air  at 
the  top  of  a  room  is  not  the  same  temperature  as  that 
near  the  floor? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find   some   way   of   showing   that   air,   when   warmed, 
changes  as  to  the  amount  of  space  it  occupies.     Like- 


The  Atmosphere  47 

wise  devise  some  scheme  for  showing  that  a  change  in 
volume  occurs  when  air  is  cooled. 

2.  Determine,  if  you  can,  which  is  heavier,  a  given  quantity 
of  warm  air  or  the  same  quantity  of  cold  air. 

3.  Find  some  means  of  showing  that  air  when  warmed  is 
crowded  into  a  new  position  by  the  surrounding  cooler 
air. 

References : 

Dryer,  pp.  174-180;  Arey,  pp.  73-90;  Milham,  pp.  26-60; 
Dodge,  pp.  43-46;  Tarr  and  McMurry,  pp.  207-280; 
Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  55-83 

Conclusions : 

1.  Effect  of  increased  or  decreased  temperature  on  the 
volume  of  a  given  quantity  of  air 

2.  Comparison  of  equal  volumes  of  cold  and  warm  air  as 
to  weight 

3.  Position  assumed  by  any  body  of  warm  air  when  sur- 
rounded by  air  which  is  colder 

4.  Reason  for  air  in  the  top  of  the  room  being  warmer 
than  that  near  the  floor 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  does  a  balloon  rise,  and  upon  what  property 
of  air  does  its  behavior  depend? 

2.  What  is  there  about  air  that  enables  a  bird  or  an 
aeroplane  to  fly  in  it? 

3.  What  is  the  principle  upon  which  the  Westinghouse 
air  brake  depends? 

4.  Why  does  air  expand  when  heated  and  contract 
when  cooled? 

5.  How  is  it  possible  to  make  an  automobile  or  bicycle 
tire  so  hard  by  means  of  air? 

6.  Why  is  an  inflated  basket-ball  harder  in  a  warm 
room  than  in  a  cold  room? 

7.  What  effect  do  the  expansion  and   contraction   of 
air  have  on  the  ventilation  of  the  soil  ? 


48  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

8.  Explain  the  principle  of  the  thermostat,   or   heat 
regulator,  such  as  is  used  in  incubators. 

9.  Describe  a  thermometer  and  how  it  operates. 
10.  What  is  a  thermograph? 

22.  WEIGHT   OF   THE   AIR 

Purpose:  Developing  the  fact  that  air  has  weight  and 
showing  the  relationships  that  this  property  of  air  has 
to  some  common  phenomena  connected  with  human 
activities 

Problem:  At  sea  level  the  air  presses  down  more  than  a 
ton  on  every  square  foot.  How  can  you  show  thai 
air  can  exert  pressure,  and  in  what  ways  are  we  influ- 
enced by  it? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  What  amount  of  pressing  down  can  you  do  when  stand- 
ing on  the  platform  of  a  scales?  Any  object  that  can 
exert  pressure  on  the  scales  is  said  to  have  what  prop- 
erty?    What  is  the  weight  of  the  air  at  sea  level? 

2.  Fill  a  glass  tumbler  full  of  water,  cover  it  with  a  piece 
of  glazed  paper,  and,  holding  the  paper  on  firmly  with 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  quickly  invert  the  glass  and  care- 
fully remove  the  hand  from  the  paper.  Why  doesn't 
the  water  push  the  paper  off? 

3.  Find  other  ways  of  proving  that  air  has  weight. 

4.  Describe  an  instrument  for  accurately  measuring  the 
weight  of  the  air. 

5.  How  does  air  pressure  on  highlands  compare  with  sea- 
level  pressure?     Explain  in  full. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  1 81-184;  Arey,  pp.  91-98;  Salisbury-Barrows- 
Tower,  pp.  102-125;  Dodge,  p.  46;  Milham,  pp.  1 14-123; 
Tarr  and  McMurry,  pp.  207-210 


The  Atmosphere  49 

Conclusions: 

1.  Amount  of  pressure  at  sea  level  in  pounds  per  square 
inch 

2.  Relation  of  altitude  to  air  pressure 

3.  Direction  of  air  pressure 

4.  Relation  of  increased  or  decreased  temperature  to  air 
pressure 

5.  Volume  of  air  as  related  to  pressure 

6.  Volume  of  air  as  related  to  temperature 

7.  Relation  of  barometer  reading  to  altitude 

Related  Problems: 

Why  does  the  air  pressure  at  a  given  place  change? 
What  is  an  aneroid  barometer,  and  how  is  it  con- 
structed ? 
3.  How  can  a  barometer  be  used  for  measuring  alti- 
tude? 

What  is  meant  when  we  say  the  air  pressure  is  29 
inches  ? 

Why  use  mercury  rather  than  some  other  liquid  in 
the  construction  of  barometers  ? 
If  the  mercury  in  the  thermometer  should  rise,  how 
would  you  expect  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  to 
behave  ? 

Why  is  it  more  difficult  to  cook  potatoes  at  Pike's 
Peak  than  at  San  Francisco? 

Why  does  one  breathe  more  deeply  in  high  altitudes 
than  at  sea  level? 

Explain  why  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  a  suction 
pump  in  a  well  35  feet  deep. 

Is  it  necessary  or  not  that  a  mercurial  barometer 
be  held  in  a  vertical  position  when  read?  Explain. 
Must  the  aneroid  be  held  in  any  particular  position  ? 
If  a  closed  bottle  full  of  air  be  cooled,  the  pressure 
on  the  inner  surface  is  decreased,  but  if  the  stopper 


50  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

is  removed,  the  warming  of  the  outside  air  decreases 
the  pressure  on  the  inner  surface.     Explain  why 
this  is  true. 
1 2 .  What  is  a  barograph  ? 

23.  SOURCE,   EVAPORATION,   AND   LATENT   HEAT 
OF   ATMOSPHERIC   MOISTURE 

Purpose:  Studying  the  facts  and  principles  concerned  in 

the  evaporation  of  moisture  into  the  air 

Problem :  How  does  moisture  get  into  the  air,  from  where 
does  it  come,  how  much  can  it  hold,  and  how  is  the 
temperature  of  bodies  from  which  it  comes  affected? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

i.  Explain  the  change  that  takes  place  when  the  water  in 
the  teakettle  is  caused  to  disappear  by  heating.  Con- 
sider the  same  process  at  lower  temperatures  and  give 
three  important  examples.  Name  several  factors  in- 
volved in  the  rate  of  evaporation. 

2.  How  much  change  in  volume  takes  place  when  water 
is  changed  into  water  vapor? 

3.  Find  a  table  showing  the  capacity  of  air  for  moisture 
at  different  temperatures.  Note  the  change  in  capacity 
as  the  temperature  is  raised  or  lowered. 

4.  Put  two  or  three  drops  of  alcohol  or  ether  on  your 
hand  and  explain  the  temperature  effect  as  the  liquid 
evaporates. 

Where  is  the  heat  that  left  your  hand? 

Find  several  means  of  illustrating  this  same  effect  when 

water  evaporates.     (Use  the  thermometer  if  you  wish.) 

5.  Study  the  hygrometer,  maximum  and  minimum  ther- 
mometer, and  dew-point. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  193-194;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  84-89; 
Arey,  pp.  117-120;  Milham,  pp.  191-194;  Harrington, 
About  the  Weather,  pp.  69-72 


The  Atmosphere  51 

Conclusions : 

1.  The  force  causing  evaporation 

2.  Three  or  four  sources  of  supply  of  atmospheric  moisture 

3.  Factors  involved  in  the  rate  of  evaporation 

4.  Change  in  the  volume  of  water  when  changed  to  water 
vapor 

5.  Influence  of  temperature  on  capacity  of  air  for  moisture 

6.  Influence   of   evaporation   on   temperature   of   objects 
from  which  it  took  place 

7.  Meaning  of  latent  heat  of  vaporization 

Related  Problems: 

1.  What  is  the  molecular  theory,  and  how  is  it  useful 
in  explaining  the  change  of  water  to  steam  or  water 
vapor  ? 

2.  Why  does  a  piece  of  iron  expand  when  heated? 
Illustrate. 

3.  Compare  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated  from  the 
soil  with  that  transpired  by  plants. 

4.  Why  is  one  in  danger  of  "catching  cold "  wrhen  wear- 
ing wet  clothing? 

5.  Why  is  a  breeze  on  a  hot  day  so  refreshing? 

6.  How  does  a  doctor  generally  "break  a  fever"? 

7.  Explain  how  a  canvas  water  container  keeps  the 
water  in  it  cool  on  a  hot  day. 

8.  What  is  a  calorie  of  heat?  How  many  does  it  take 
to  evaporate  a  cubic  centimeter  of  water?     A  pint? 

9.  How  does  a  plant  keep  cool  on  a  hot  day? 

10.  Upon  what  principle  does  the  action  of  a  steam 
engine  depend? 

1 1 .  Why  does  the  visible  moisture  from  the  steam  engine 
or  the  breath  soon  disappear? 

12.  What  is  relative  humidity?     Saturation? 

13.  Warming  saturated  air  has  what  influence  on  its 
capacity  for  moisture? 


52  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

14.  Can  evaporation    take   place    below    the    freezing 
point  ?     Illustrate. 

15.  Why  do  lakes  and  rivers  cool  so  much  more  quickly 
in  the  autumn  than  they  warm  up  in  the  spring? 

24.  CAUSES   OF   CONDENSATION   OF 
ATMOSPHERIC   MOISTURE 

Purpose:  Learning  the  principles  underlying  the  forma- 
tion of  fog,  rain,  snow,  dew,  frost,  and  clouds 

Problem:  What  is  the  cause  of  the  different  forms  of 
precipitation,  and  how  is  the  temperature  of  the  air 
affected  by  the  condensation  of  moisture? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Recall  the  capacity  of  air  for  moisture  at  60  degrees  F. 
If  the  temperature  is  lowered  a  little,  what  must  happen 
to  some  of  the  moisture?  What  if  the  temperature  is 
lowered  a  large  amount,  say  10  degrees  or  15  degrees? 

2.  What  must  result  if  saturated  air  at  20  degrees  F.  — that 
is,  below  the  freezing  point  —  has  its  temperature  lowered 
a  small  amount?    A  large  amount? 

3.  What  is  dew,  and  above  what  temperature,  only,  can 
it  be  formed?  What  is  frost,  and  below  what  tempera- 
ture, only,  can  it  be  formed? 

4.  Explain  and  demonstrate,  if  possible,  four  different 
means  by  which  condensation  of  atmospheric  moisture 
may  take  place. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  194-198;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  88- 
100;  Arey,  pp.  1 18-128;  Harrington,  chaps,  xi,  xii;  Mil- 
ham,  pp.  233-243 

Conclusions: 

1.  Effect  of  lowering  the  temperature  of  saturated  air 

2.  Conditions  for  the  formation  of  fog,  of  rain,  and  of  snow 

3.  Conditions  for  the  formation  of  dew  and  of  frost 


The  Atmosphere  53 

4.  Four  factors  causing  necessary  cooling  for  condensation 

5.  Effect  of  condensation  on  the  temperature  of  the  air 

Related  Problems: 

1.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  fog  at  the  opening  of  a 
teakettle  of  boiling  water  ?  Why  can  you  sometimes 
"see  your  breath"?    Why  not  always? 

2.  Why  is  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air  usually 
higher  at  night  than  in  the  daytime? 

3.  Why  doesn't  dew  or  frost  form  on  a  cloudy  or  windy 
night  ? 

4.  Why  are  lowlands  more  subject  to  frosts  than  the 
uplands  ? 

5.  What  causes  the  condensation  of  moisture  in  the 
common  thunder  clouds? 

6.  Why  does  the  rain  that  sometimes  starts  to  fall 
from  a  cloud  fail  to  reach  the  earth? 

7.  Why  doesn't  frost  or  dew  form  under  trees  and 
bushes  ? 

8.  Why  does  the  temperature  often  rise  when  the  snow 
begins  to  fall? 

9.  Recall  what  became  of  the  heat  that  was  required 
to  evaporate  the  water.  Infer  what  becomes  of 
this  heat  when  the  water  vapor  is  condensed. 

25.  MOISTURE   CONTENT   OF   THE   AIR   IN 
RELATION   TO   PRESSURE 

Purpose:  Finding  out  the  relation  of  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  tie  air  to  its  weight,  and  discovering  how 
such  conditions  seem  to  influence  the  barometer  and 
weather 

Problem:  What  is  commonly  said  concerning  the  weight 
of  the  air  when  it  seems  very  damp  and  the  smoke 


54  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

from  the  chimney  is  observed  to  descend  to  the  ground  ? 
Is  this  saying  a  true  one  or  not? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  What  is  true  concerning  the  temperature  and  weight  of 
the  air  that  brings  the  smoke  from  the  chimney?  Why? 
Recall  why  a  rock  sinks  in  water  and  infer  why  this 
hot,  smoke-laden  air  from  the  chimney  comes  to  the 
ground. 

2.  On  what  kind  of  days  does  the  smoke  rise  to  great 
heights,  clear  or  cloudy?     Why? 

See  if  you  can  add  to  your  reason  for  the  smoke  coming 
down  under  the  conditions  stated  in  the  problem. 

3.  Find  out  how  the  barometer  behaves  when  the  smoke 
comes  down,  and  explain. 

4.  Do  you  find  any  error  in  the  popular  saying  as  to  the 
weight  of  the  air  under  the  conditions  stated  in  the 
problem? 

References: 

Salisbury- Barrows-Tower,    p.    88;    Dryer,    pp.     193-194; 
Milham,  p.  191;   Arey,  pp.  11 7-1 18 

Conclusions: 

1.  Relation  of  humidity  to  air  pressure 

2.  Cause  of  smoke  coming  to  the  ground  on  damp  days 

3.  Effect  of  increased  humidity  on  height  of  the  barometer 

4.  Reliability  of  common  sayings 

5.  Two  important  factors  influencing  the  weight  of  the  air 

Related  Problems: 

1.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  480,000  grains. 
A  cubic  foot  of  dry  air  weighs  571  grains. 
A  cubic  foot  of  water  vapor  weighs  282  grains. 
Compute  the  comparative  weight  of  (a)  water  and 
dry  air,  (6)  water  and  water  vapor,  (c)  dry  air  and 
water  vapor,  (d)  dry  air  and  a  mixture  of  dry  air 
and  water  vapor. 


The  Atmosphere  55 

2.  What  influence  have  evaporation  and  condensation 
of  moisture  on  the  temperature  of  the  region  in 
which  they  take  place? 

3.  According  to  your  results  in  (1),  how  many  cubic 
feet  of  dry  air  would  be  required  to  weigh  one  pound  ? 
(1  lb.  equals  7,000  grains.)  How  much  water 
vapor?  How  much  of  an  equal  mixture  of  dry  air 
and  water  vapor? 

4.  What  effect  has  cooling  or  warming  air  on  its  relative 
humidity  ? 

5.  Why  do  morning  fogs  usually  disappear  before  noon? 

6.  What  factors  cause  the  air  to  become  lighter? 
Heavier  ? 

7.  Why  do  fogs  often  form  in  valleys  when  there  is 
none  on  the  uplands? 

8.  How  do  fogs  differ  from  clouds?  What  becomes  of 
clouds  and  fogs?     Do  they  exist  forever?     Explain. 

26.  THE  CAUSE   OF   WINDS 

Purpose:  Studying  the  cause  of  winds  and  learning  the 
principles  underlying  their  movements 

Problem:  Where  do  winds  come  from,  where  do  they  go, 
and  where  do  they  stop? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  What  have  you  learned  concerning  the  influence  of 
differences  of  temperature  and  moisture  content  on  the 
weight  of  air?  By  what  means  is  this  weight  or  pres- 
sure measured? 

2.  Secure  a  cigar  box  with  a  closely  fitting  lid  so  it  will 
be  air-tight.  Cut  three  holes,  about  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter,  four  inches  apart  in  the  lid.  Set 
lamp  chimneys  over  each  of  the  holes  and  place  a  short 
candle  in  the  middle  one.     By  means  of  this  apparatus 


56  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

show  and  explain  how  air  moves  and  when  movement 
ceases.  (Use  a  bit  of  "smoke  paper"  to  discover  the 
direction  of  air  currents.)  Find  other  means  of  showing 
that  air  moves.     Get  a  good  definition  for  wind. 

3.  If  the  air  in  your  county  is  lighter  than  in  the  surround- 
ing counties,  how  will  this  surrounding  air  influence  the 
air  in  your  county? 

Make  two  sketches  of  the  counties  in  question,  one  an 
areal  and  one  a  vertical  section.  On  these  sketches 
indicate  by  means  of  arrows  the  direction  of  movement 
of  the  air  in  the  different  parts  of  the  drawing. 

4.  What  is  the  answer  to  the  problem? 

References: 

Dryer,  p.  184;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  106,  107, 
128;  Arey,  pp.  99-103;  Milham,  pp.  136-164;  Holtz,  pp. 
263-264;   Gregory,  p.  99 

Conclusions: 

1.  Causes  of  winds 

2.  Factors  determining  the  direction  of  winds 

3.  Causes  of  calms  (three) 

4.  Definition  of  wind 

5.  Causes  of  different  velocities  of  the  wind 

Related  Problems: 

t.  Oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbondioxide  are  not  the 
same  in  weight.  Why  is  the  heaviest  not  found  at 
the  bottom  and  the  lightest  at  the  top  of  the  atmos- 
pheric envelope? 

2.  Explain  the  hot-air  system  of  heating  buildings. 
Show  by  a  drawing. 

3.  How  are  whirlwinds  caused? 

4.  What  effect  do  high  altitudes  have  on  the  action  of 
a  steam  engine?     Of  a  gas  engine' 

5.  Why  does  the  wind  blow  harder  sometimes  than  at 
others  ? 


The  Atmosphere  57 

6.  Explain  by  a  drawing  the  conditions  necessary  to 
cause  a  south  wind.     A  calm. 

27.  THE  WIND  AND  CALM  BELTS  OF  THE  WORLD 

Purpose :  Studying  the  causes  of  the  wind  and  calm  belts 
of  the  world 

Problem:  What  are  the  conditions  which  warrant  the 
division  of  the  world  into  planetary  belts  of  winds 
and  calms? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find  and  explain  the  location  of  the  heat  equator. 
Study  to  learn  the  movements  of  the  atmosphere  at 
and  near  the  heat  equator  and  determine  the  extent 
of  this  movement.  Are  they  high-pressure  or  low- 
pressure  belts? 

Find  the  names  and  the  exact  location  of  the  three  belts 
studied  in  this  paragraph. 

2.  Determine  what  becomes  of  the  air  that  rises  in  the 
hot  belt  of  equatorial  calms. 

What  names  are  applied  to  the  two  belts  along  the  tropics 
and  are  they  high-pressure  or  low-pressure  belts? 
Determine  the  location  and  account  for  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  westerly  winds. 
Study  the  cause  and  direction  of  the  circumpolar  winds. 

3.  Draw  a  four-inch  circle  and  let  it  represent  a  section  of 
the  earth  through  the  axis.  Also  draw  a  horizontal  line 
through  the  center  for  the  equatorial  diameter.  Just 
outside  this  circumference  represent  in  vertical  section, 
by  means  of  arrows,  the  direction  of  the  air  in  each  of 
the  belts  studied  above,  and  label  each  belt  carefully. 

4.  Draw  another  four-inch  circle  to  represent  a  hemisphere 
of  the  earth.  Draw  through  the  center  a  horizontal 
line  to  represent  a  semi-equator.  Draw,  also,  lines  to 
represent  tropics  and  polar  circles.     On  this  diagram 


58  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

show  by  means  of  arrows  the  surficial  movement  of  the 
winds  in  the  various  wind  belts  of  the  world  and  write 
their  names  carefully  in  the  proper  places. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  189-190;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  112- 
113;  Arey,  pp.  101-105;  Milham,  pp.  165-177;  Holtz, 
pp.  263-264;  Gregory,  p.  95;  Dodge,  pp.  47-49;  Mill, 
pp.  72-78 

Conclusions: 

1 .  Cause  for  the  location  of  the  heat  equator 

2 .  Cause  for  the  upward  movement  of  air  in  the  belt  along 
the  heat  equator 

3.  Why  the  equatorial  calms  are  a  low-pressure  belt 

4.  Cause  of  the  pressure  conditions  in  the  tropical  calm 
belts 

5.  Cause  of  the  veering  of  the  planetary  belts  of  winds 

6.  Cause  of  the  steady,  constant  movements  of  the  trade 
winds 

7.  Relation  of  wind  and  calm  belts  to  the  distribution  of 
heat,  and  equalization  of  the  gaseous  components  of 
the  air  in  different  parts  of  the  world 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  are  the  trade  winds  more  regular  over  the  sea 
than  over  the  land? 

2.  Which  blow  the  more  steadily,  the  winds  near  or 
those  far  above  the  earth's  surface? 

3.  Why  do  fires  burn  better  in  cold  than  in  warm 
weather  ? 

4.  What  difference  between  natural  and  forced  ventila- 
tion of  buildings? 

5.  How  get  the  best  ventilation  of  a  room  by  means  of 
the  windows  only?     Why? 

6.  What  is  the  significance   of   the   term  "planetary 
belts  of  winds  and  calms"? 


The  Atmosphere  59 

7.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  amount  of  force 
exerted  by  a  cold  wind  and  a  warm  wind  if  they  are 
each  blowing  forty  miles  an  hour?     Explain. 

8.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  would  the  power  derived 
from  winds  be  the  most  reliable  and  constant? 

9.  Why  is  there  a  constant  low-pressure  area  near  the 
equator  and  constant  high-pressure  near  the  tropics  ? 

28.  MOISTURE   CONDITIONS   IN   THE   INTERTROPICAL 
AND   SUBTROPICAL   BELTS 

Purpose:  To  work  out  the  relation  of  wind  and  calm 
belts  to  rainfall 

Problem:  Why  is  there  such  a  great  difference  in  the 
amount  of  rainfall  in  the  equatorial  and  tropical  calm 
belts,  and  how  account  for  the  low  rainfall  in  the 
trade- wind  belts? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Consult  a  rainfall  map  of  the  world  and  determine  the 
comparative  amounts  of  rainfall  in  the  three  belts. 

2.  Consider  the  temperature  conditions  of  the  air  in  the 
trade-wind  belts  as  it  advances  toward  the  heat 
equator  and  explain  how  this  influences  its  capacity 
for  moisture. 

Give  your  conclusions  as  to  why  the  trade-wind  belts 
are  dry. 

3.  Consider  the  quantity  of  water  vapor  held  by  the  ascend- 
ing currents  of  air  in  the  doldrum  belt  and  give  your 
conclusions  and  reasons  for  the  moisture  conditions  in 
this  belt  as  noted  in  (1)  above. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  217-218;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  159- 
171;  Arey,  pp.  150-154;  Milham,  pp.  254-255;  Tarr,  pp. 
279-285 


60  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Conclusions: 

i .  Cause  of  heavy  rainfall  in  the  doldrum  belt 

2.  Reason  for  dry  climate  of  the  trade-wind  belts 

3.  Why  the  horse  latitudes  are  so  dry 

4.  Reason  for  the  wet  spots  in  the  trade-wind  belts 

5.  Cause  of  heavier  rainfall  on  the  eastern  coasts  in  the 
trade-wind  belts  than  on  western  coasts 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Explain  the  heavy  rainfall  on  the  east  coast  of 
Central  America. 

2.  Why  do  the  eastern  coasts  in  the  trade-wind  belts 
have  a  more  equable  climate  than  the  western 
coasts  ? 

3.  Why  is  there  such  heavy  rainfall  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  Brazil  and  in  the  Guianas?" 

4.  Why  is  there  a  heavier  rainfall  on  the  east  coasts 
of  Australia  and  Madagascar  than  on  the  west 
coasts  ? 

5.  The  north  coast  of  the  West  Indies  has  a  heavier 
rainfall  than  the  south  coast.     Why? 

6.  Explain  the  cause  of  the  great  Sahara  Desert. 

7.  Note  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  rainfall  on  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  South  America  in  the  lati- 
tude of  20  degrees  south  and  explain. 

8.  Note  the  exceedingly  heavy  rainfall  in  western 
Brazil  and  explain. 

<;.  Why   doesn't  the   exceedingly  wet  belt  along  the 

equator  in   South  America  extend   to   the   Pacific 

Ocean  ? 
10.  Compare  the  rainfall  of  northeastern  South  America 

with  that  of  the  northeastern  coast  of  Africa  and 

explain  the  difference, 
r  1 .  Contrast  the  ra-infall  of  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 

South  Africa  and  explain. 


The  Atmosphere  61 

29.  THE  WINDS   OF   THE  WESTERLIES 

Purpose:  To  study  the  peculiarities  of  the  areas  of  high 
and  low  pressure  as  related  to  winds 

Problem:  Why  is  our  country  one  of  variable  winds? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1 .  Get  a  series  of  weather  maps  from  your  text  or  from  the 
Weather  Bureau  showing  the  weather  conditions  for 
several  consecutive  days. 

2.  Find  areas  marked  "low"  and  "high"  on  the  map. 
What  do  these  terms  mean? 

Find  a  low  on  the  west  margin  of  the  map  of  the  earliest 
date  and  trace  its  path  during  the  dates  following.  Get 
its  direction  and  the  time  it  takes  to  cross  the  continent. 
In  like  manner  follow  up  one  of  the  highs. 
Construct  a  diagram  showing  the  direction  and  rate  of 
movement  of  several  highs  and  lows  for  several  successive 
days. 

3.  Conceive  a  north-and-south  line  and  an  east-and-west 
one  to  be  drawn  through  the  center  of  each  of  the  areas 
of  low  pressure.  Study  the  direction  of  the  wind  in 
each  of  the  quarters  or  quadrants  of  the  low. 

In  the  same  manner  study  the  areas  of  high  pressure. 
Construct  diagrams,  both  areal  and  vertical,  using  arrows 
to  indicate  the  air  movements  in  both  highs  and  lows. 

4.  As  a  low  crosses  the  area  in  which  you  live,  what  will  be 
the  direction  of  the  wind  in  your  vicinity  as  the  low  is 
(a)  west  of  you,  (b)  over  you,  (c)  east  of  you? 

In  like  manner  work  out  the  direction  of  the  wind  if  the 

low  passes  either  north  or  south  of  you. 

Work  out  the  wind  directions  for  highs  as  you  have  for 

lows. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  189,  198-206;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp. 
128-138;  Arey,  pp.  108-113;  Milham,  pp.  283-320;  Tarr, 
pp.  262-265;   Dodge,  pp.  52-55 


62  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Conclusions: 

i.  Direction  of  wind  spiral  in  relation  to  highs  and  lows 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere;  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere 

2.  The  cause  of  the  spiral  circulation  of  the  winds  in  the 
westerlies 

3.  Direction  of  winds  in  relation  to  highs  and  lows 

4.  Velocity  of  winds  in  relation  to  differences  in  barometric 
pressure 

5.  Why  ours  is  a  country  of  variable  winds 

6.  Cause  of  calm  days  in  our  region 

7.  Why  highs  and  lows  move  eastward  and  their  rate  of 
movement 


Related  Problems: 

1.  On  a  sheet  of  paper  place  a  small  circle  and  let  it 
represent  your  home  town.  One  inch  to  the  left 
draw  a  northeast-southwest  line  four  inches  long. 
Divide  this  line  into  four  equal  parts  and  mark  the 
points  of  division  and  the  ends  of  the  line  Li,  L2, 
L3,  L4,  and  L5.  These  five  L's  represent  the  loca- 
tion of  five  areas  of  low  pressure  as  related  to  your 
home  town. 

Now,  through  your  home  town  draw  an  arrow 
toward  Li,  also  toward  L2,  L3,  etc.  These  arrows 
show  the  direction  of  the  wind  in  your  location  with 
the  lows  in  different  positions  west  of  you. 
In  like  manner  represent  wind  direction  in  your 
home  location  after  these  lows  have  passed  to  the 
east  of  you.  These  arrows  indicate  "wind-shift 
lines." 

2.  Draw  wind-shift  lines  for  a  passing  area  of  high 
pressure  as  you  did  in  (1)  above  for  the  low. 

3.  Draw  wind-shift  lines  for  both  highs  and  lows 
for  Buenos  Aires. 


The  Atmosphere  63 

4.  Explain  how  a  southeast  wind  is  a  part  of  a  storm 
approaching  from  the  west. 

5.  What  conditions  would  give  us  a  wind  shift  from  the 
south  to  northwest  by  way  of  west  ?    By  way  of  east  ? 

6.  What  conditions  would  give  the  reverse  of  the  above 
wind  shifts? 

30.  HIGHS  AND  LOWS  IN  RELATION  TO  TEMPERATURE 

Purpose:  Working  out  the  relation  of  highs  and  lows  to 
changes  of  temperature 

Problem:  Why  is  the  northern  part  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  subject  to  such  sudden  changes  of  temperature  ? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1 .  Secure  three  or  four  weather  maps  for  as  many  consecu- 
tive days.  Conceive  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  drawn 
through  the  centers  of  each  of  the  highs  and  lows. 
Arrange  a  form  in  which  to  tabulate  the  temperature  in 
each  of  the  quadrants  of  six  or  eight  lows  and  as  many 
highs. 

Add  up  the  different  columns  of  temperature  for  the 
different  quadrants  and  account  for  the  differences. 

2.  Note  the  direction  of  the  bending  of  the  isotherms  in 
relation  to  areas  of  low  pressure. 

Find  an  isotherm  that  passes  just  south  of  the  center  of 
a  high.  Follow  it  until  it  passes  the  nearest  low.  Does 
it  pass  to  the  north  or  south?     Explain. 

3.  Study  barographic  and  thermographic  records  for  the 
same  week  and  see  what  the  relation  is  that  exists 
between  pressure  and  temperature.  (See  Dodge,  Ad- 
vanced Geography.) 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  201-206;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  136- 
138;  Tarr,  pp.  265-266;  Arey,  pp.  142-144;  Milham,  pp. 
283-299;   Dodge,  pp.  52-55 


64  Studies  in  the  Principles  oj  Geography 

Conclusions: 

i.  Relation  of  highs  and  lows  to  temperature 

2.  Warm  and  cold  quadrants  of  lows 

3.  Cause  of  highs  being  cold 

4.  Course  of  isotherms  in  relation  to  highs  and  lows 

5.  Cause  of  frequent  rapid  falling  of  the  temperature  on 
continental  areas  in  middle  latitudes 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Make  an  areal  drawing  of  the  atmospheric  move- 
ments in  a  high  and  a  low  adjacent  to  each  other, 
showing  by  means  of  arrows  the  direction  of  the 
winds,  and  writing  in  the  relative  temperatures  in 
the  different  quadrants. 

2.  How  account  for  a  warm  southeast  wind  followed 
by  a  calm  and  a  cold  northwest  wind? 

3.  What  are  tornadoes?     How  caused? 

4.  What  are  hot  winds,  and  what  causes  them. 

5.  Explain  chinook  and  foehn  winds. 

6.  What  conditions  cause  a  cold  south  wind? 

7.  What  is  a  thermograph,  and  how  is  it  constructed? 

8.  Why  is  a  uniform  bore  necessary  in  a  thermometer? 
Is  the  same  true  in  the  case  of  the  barometer? 

0.  Why  is  a  cloudy  day  in  winter  warmer  and   in 

summer  cooler  than  a  clear  day? 
10.  Explain  the  temperature  conditions  at  your  home 
attending  the  passing  of  a  low  to  the  south  of  you. 
Tell  about  the  wind  shift  also. 

31.  PRECIPITATION   IN   THE   WESTERLIES 

Purpose:  Studying  the  conditions  causing  precipitation 
in  the  belts  of  westerly  winds 

Problem:  Why  do  our  storms  so  often  come  from  the 
northwest  against  a  south  or  southeast  wind? 


The  Atmosphere  65 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1 .  From  a  number  of  weather  maps  study  the  precipitation 
in  the  different  areas  of  high  and  low  pressure. 

In  connection  with  this  recall  the  wind  direction  in  the 
different  quadrants  of  lows  and  highs. 

2.  After  determining  which  generally  gives  precipitation, 
highs  or  lows,  recall  the  direction  in  which  the  storm 
center  moves  and  the  shifting  of  the  wind  in  your  locality 
as  one  of  the  storm  areas  approaches. 

Now,  find  your  reason  for  the  conditions  stated  in  the 
problem. 

3.  Describe  carefully  the  weather  conditions  as  to  tempera- 
ture, wind,  precipitation,  and  pressure  changes  preced- 
ing, attending,  and  following  a  typical  storm  in  the  belt 
of  westerly  winds. 

4.  Study  Figs.  412  and  417  in  Tarr  in  connection  with 
this  problem.  Copy  the  diagrams  in  your  notebooks 
and  explain  them  in  full. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  200-203,  21i\  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp. 
130-132;  Milham,  pp.  283-287;  Arey,  pp.  142-144; 
Dodge,  pp.  51-55;   Tarr  and  McMurry,  pp.  214-216 

Conclusions : 

1.  Moisture  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  lows 

2.  Moisture  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  highs 

3.  Why  storms  from  the  northwest  often  come  up  against 
the  wind 

4.  Cause  of  thunderstorms 

5.  Reliability  of  long-range  forecasting 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  is  it  that  when  it  is  raining  the  air  is  hardly 
ever  saturated? 

2.  Why  does  one  become  chilled  in  wet  clothes  more 
ouickly  than  in  dry  ones? 


66  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

3.  Why  is  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air  usually 
higher  near  the  earth's  surface  at  night  and  lower 
during  the  daytime  than  at  an  elevation  of  100  or 
200  feet? 

4.  Why  does  frost  form  on  the  windows  of  living  rooms 
and  not  on  those  of  unoccupied  rooms? 

5.  Why  does  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air  decrease 
as  the  day  advances  until  about  2 : 00  p.m.  and 
then  increase  until  morning? 

6.  Why  is  the  "laying"  of  the  wind  or  the  clearing  of 
the  sky  in  the  evening  conducive  to  frost  or  dew? 

7.  How  is  rainfall  shown  on  a  map?  (Name  two  or 
three  ways.) 

8.  Where  do  the  storms  originate  that  give  rain  to 
the  agricultural  regions  of  the  north-central  states 
of  the  United  States? 

9.  Why  is  the  appearance  of  a  clear  sky  on  the  north- 
western horizon  regarded  as  a  sign  of  fair  weather? 

10.  Bring  to  class  a  list  of  six  weather  proverbs  and  be 
able  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  their  scientific  basis. 
(See  Milham,  Index.) 

11.  Why  is  a  low  rather  than  a  high  a  storm  center? 

32.  WEATHER   FORECASTING 

Purpose :  Studying  a  few  of  the  more  essential  factors  in 
weather  forecasting 

Problem:  How  can  each  of  us  from  the  existing  weather 
conditions  and  the  daily  weather  map  forecast  the 
weather  quite  accurately  for  a  day  or  two  ahead? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Find  out  the  four  important  factors  that  go  toward 
making  up  the  weather.  Recall  how  each  of  these  four 
factors  is  represented  on  a  weather  map. 


The  Atmosphere 


67 


What  are  the  different  features  of  highs  and  lows  that 
must  be  kept  in  mind  in  order  to  predict  what  the 
weather  of  the  next  twenty-four  hours  may  be?  (Give 
at  least  six  of  them.  See  Milham,  p.  384,  and  Salis- 
bury-Barrows-Tower, pp.  130-134.) 
Study  the  latest  available  weather  map  and,  keeping 
in  mind  the  rules  studied  in  (2)  above,  forecast  the 
weather  for  your  locality  for  the  next  twenty-four  hours 
and  tabulate  your  work  below. 


Weather  Conditions 


Today 

For  Tomorrow 

My 
Forecast 

Bureau's 
Forecast 

Actual 
Conditions 

Temperature . .  . 
Pressure .  .  . 

Wind  direction  . 

Wind  velocity.  . 

Condition  of  sky 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  199-206;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  130- 
134;  Arey,  pp.  142-143.  145-148;  Milham,  pp.  383-384; 
Dodge,  pp.   52-54 


Conclusions : 

1.  Direction  and  rate  of  movement  of  highs  and  lows 

2.  Main  factors  involved  in  weather  forecasting 

3.  Percentage  of  accuracy  by  forecasting  bureau 

4.  Weather  conditions  in  lows 

5.  Weather  conditions  in  highs 

6.  Why  forecasts  do  not  always  come  true 

7.  Why  accuracy  in  long-range  forecasting  is  impossible 


68  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Related  Problems: 

i.  Formulate  a  rule  for  forecasting  the  temperature 
when  the  isotherms  arc  (a)  far  apart  and  extending 
east  and  west,  (b)  close  together  and  extending  east 
and  west. 

2.  Why  are  stockmen  on  the  plains  interested  in  the 
weather  forecasts? 

3.  How  are  we  to  know  whether  a  prediction  has  been 
a  success  or  a  failure? 

4.  What  do  you  think  of  long-range  forecasts  as  given 
in  almanacs? 

5.  Wherein  did  your  forecast  differ  from  the  one  given 
out  by  the  weather  bureau  ?  How  do  you  account 
for  the  difference? 

6.  Wherein  did  your  forecast  and  also  that  of  the 
weather  bureau  miss  actual  conditions?  Can  you 
account  for  the  differences? 


33.  MIGRATION  OF  PLANETARY  BELTS  OF  WINDS 
AND  CALMS 

Purpose :  Studying  the  cause  and  effects  of  the  latitudinal 
movements  of  the  wind  and  calm  belts  of  the  world 

Problem:  Why  isn't  the  heat  equator  found  in  the  same 
place  in  the  winter  that  it  is  in  the  summer,  and  what 
effect  does  its  north-and-south  movement  have  on  the 
location  of  the  belts  of  winds  and  calms  at  different 
times  of  the  year? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  locate  in  red  ink  the 
position  of  the  heat  equator  in  July  and  in  blue  or  black 
its  location  in  January.  (See  Dryer,  pp.  178-179.) 
Explain  the  change  in  position. 


The  Atmosphere  69 

2.  Work  out  the  effect  this  movement  would  have  on  the 
location  of  the  equatorial  calms,  and  consequently  on 
the  belts  of  trades,  horse  latitudes,  and  westerlies  at 
different  times  of  the  year. 

3.  Study  the  bending  of  the  heat  equator  in  winter  and 
summer  as  it  crosses  the  continents  and  suggest  causes 
for  its  behavior. 

4.  Using  the  table  on  page  170  and  the  figure  on  page 
171  in  Milham,  show  on  an  outline  map  of  the  world 
how  the  wind  and  calm  belts  of  the  world  migrate  and 
overlap. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  189-192;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  112- 
113;  Arey,  pp.  150-154;  Milham,  pp.  169-177;  Tarr, 
p.  259;    Dodge,  pp.  48,  50 

Conclusions : 

1.  Why  the  heat  equator  migrates  north  and  south 

2.  Bending  of  heat  equator  in  crossing  the  continents 

3.  Cause  of  heat  equator  bending  poleward  in  the  summer 
when  crossing  the  continents 

4.  Why  the  doldrums  move  north  and  south 

5.  Directions  of  winds  at  different  times  of  the  year  where 
the  trades  and  doldrums  overlap 

6.  Directions  of  the  winds  at  different  times  of  the  year 
where  the  horse  latitudes  and  trades  overlap 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Study  the  monsoon  winds  of  India  and  show  how 
they  are  a  result  of  migrations  of  the  heat  equator. 

2.  Why  are  the  summer  monsoons  of  India  from  the 
southwest  rather  than  from  the  southeast? 

3 .  Study  the  direction  of  the  winds  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
on  the  two  maps,  page  191  of  Dryer,  and  account 
for  the  differences.  (See  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of 
Meteorology,   Plate  XIV.) 

6 


>  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

4.  Note  the  difference  in  direction  of  the  winds  in 
northern  Australia  on  the  same  two  maps  and 
account  for  the  contrast. 

5.  Likewise  explain  the  contrast  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Africa  and  the  east  coast  of  China. 

6.  Note  whether  the  winds  blow  toward  or  away  from 
the  interior  of  North  America  in  winter  and  summer 
and  explain  any  difference  you  find. 

7 .  Why  are  California  and  Florida  more  likely  to  have 
westerly  winds  in  winter  than  in  summer? 


VII.     CLIMATIC  TYPES  AND  THEIR 
CORRELATIVES 

PROJECT 

The  climate  of  the  Americas  is  so  varied  and  interest- 
ing in  all  its  elements  that  a  thorough  understanding  of 
its  several  types  constitutes  a  sufficient  basis  for  the 
interpretation  of  the  climate  of  any  part  of  the  world. 
This  project  is  concerned  with  the  task  of  developing  a 
working  knowledge  of  the  climatic  types  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere  and  their  correlatives  in  other  parts  of 
the  world. 

34.  AMAZON   TYPE,   OR   EQUATORIAL   OR 
DOLDRUM   CLIMATES 

Purpose:  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  the  equatorial 
or  doldrum  climate  and  how  it  influences  life  and  human 
activity 

Problem :  How  do  you  account  for  the  dense,  continuous 
growth  of  vegetation  and  the  low  state  of  human 
society  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  River? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i .  From  a  physical  map  of  South  America  find  out  concern- 
ing the  latitude,  topography,  and  hydrography  of  this 
region. 

2.  Study  maps  and  texts  concerning  the  plant  and  animal 
forms,  including  man.  What  seems  to  be  the  prevail- 
ing type  of  each? 

3.  Find  out  from  temperature  and  rainfall  maps  what  is 
true  as  to  maximum  and  minimum  temperature  with 
seasonal  variations,  and  total  and  seasonal  distribution 

6  71 


72  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

of  rainfall.  Give  causes  in  full.  (See  table  entitled 
"Temperature,  Cloudiness,  and  Wind  Belts  of  the  Cli- 
matic Regions  of  America,"  p.  113.) 

4.  What  can  you  find  concerning  the  general  healthfulness 
and  ambition  of  the  people  of  this  region?  Give  some 
causes. 

5.  What  incentives  are  found  which  lead  to  frugality, 
industry,  and  progressiveness? 

6.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  delineate  this  region 
and  color  it  in  red.  Also  on  this  same  map  indicate 
in  red  two  other  regions  with  similar  climate.  (See 
Dryer,  pp.  320-330.) 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  329,  335,  491;  Gregory-Keller-Bishop,  pp.  113- 
114;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  160-165;  Herbertson, 
Man  and  His  Work,  chap,  v;  Mill,  pp.  868-873;  Milham, 
p.  168;  Herbertson,  Senior  Geography,  p.  349;  Bartholomew, 
Atlas  of  Meteorology;    Bowman,  South  America 

Conclusions: 

i .  Cause  of  high  temperature  in  the  doldrum  belt 

2.  Reason  for  high  rainfall  in  this  belt 

3.  Cause  for  highly  colored  plumage  of  birds 

4.  Why  temperature  varies  so  little 

5.  Why  the  natives  do  not  have  the  progressive  spirit 

6.  Cause  of  this  region's  being  unhealthful  for  foreigners 

7.  Cause  of  rather  even  distribution  of  rainfall 

8.  Cause  for  rank,  dense  vegetation 

9.  Average  barometric  pressure  in  this  region,  with  causes 
10.  Why  the  daily  range  of  temperature  is  greater  than  the 

annual 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  How  do  you  account  for  the  large  amount  and  sea- 
sonal distribution  of  rainfall  on  the  "Gold  Coast"? 

2.  Why  is  the  region  around  the  source  and  course  of 
the  Congo  River  so  unhealthful  and  called  the 
"White  Man's  Grave"? 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  73 

3.  Why  are  the  highest  temperatures  not  always 
found  on  the  equator? 

4.  Explain  the  location  and  relation  of  a  place  to  the 
doldrum  belt  in  order  that  it  have  two  rainy  and 
two  dry  seasons. 

5.  Why  is  there  not  a  desert  region  east  of  the  Andes 
Mountains  as  there  is  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas 
in  North  America? 

35.  CARIBBEAN   TYPE,   OR   TRADE-WIND 
AND   MONSOON   CLIMATES 

Purpose:  To  study  the  conditions  that  influence  the 
making  of  the  Caribbean  type  of  climate  and  the  life 
of  that  region 

Problem:  Why  was  the  climate  the  worst  obstacle  in 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find  all  you  can  about  the  history  of  the  Panama 
Canal  idea.  What  elements  contributed  to  the  failure 
of  the  French  in  their  attempt  to  dig  the  canal? 

2.  From  physical,  temperature,  wind,  and  rainfall  maps 
of  this  region,  study  the  lay  of  the  land  as  related  to 
drainage,  rainfall,  temperature,  and  wind.  Study  the 
annual  and  seasonal  distribution  of  temperature,  rain- 
fall, and  winds. 

3.  What  native  and  cultivated  vegetation  results  from  the 
conditions  found  in  (2)? 

4.  How  are  the  facts  assembled  in  (2)  related  to  health 
and  disease,  and  what  of  their  influence  on  the  habits 
of  the  people? 

5.  What  means  did  our  government  use  in  overcoming  the 
difficulties  found? 

6.  To  the  map  used  in  the  preceding  problem  add  the 
Caribbean  type  of  climate  and  also  two  other  regions 
that  are  correlative  with  this  one.     Color  in  red. 


74  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  328-335,  485;!  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp. 
105-108;  Gregory-Keller-Bishop,  pp.  114,  328,  349;  Mil- 
ham,  p.  168;  Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work;  Bartholo- 
mew, Economic  Atlas;  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorology; 
Herbertson,  Senior  Geography,  pp.  323-326 

Conclusions : 

1.  How  the  French  failed  in  digging  the  canal 

2.  Seasonal  distribution  of  temperature,  winds,  and  rain- 
fall.   Causes 

3.  Sanitary  and  health  factors  involved  in  regions  of  this 
type 

4.  Vegetation  resulting  from  this  type  of  climate 

5.  Other  climates  in  the  world  like  this  one 

6.  Distinguishing  features  of  Caribbean  climate 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  does  San  Juan  on  the  north  shore  of  Porto 
Rico  get  a  much  heavier  rainfall  than  Ponce  on  the 
south  shore? 

2.  Account  for  the  summer  rainfall  and  winter  dry 
weather  of  Indo-China. 

3.  Account  for  the  naming  of  the  trade  winds. 

4.  Why  is  there  no  desert  in  subtropical  South  America 
east  of  the  Andes? 

5.  Account  for  the  seasonal  wind  directions  in  India 
and  the  far-reaching  effects  of  them. 

6.  What  is  the  explanation  for  the  seasonal  distribution 
of  rainfall  on  the  "Gold  Coast"  of  Africa? 

36.  MEXICAN   TYPE,   OR   HORSE   LATITUDES   AND 
TRADE-WIND   CLIMATES 

Purpose:  To  learn  about  the  climate  of  the  transitional 
region  between  the  horse  latitudes  and  trade  winds  and 
the  possibilities  of  life  there 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  75 

Problem:  Why  is  northern  Mexico  called  the  "Land  of 
the  Cactus,"  and  what  are  the  climatic  factors  that 
cause  such  conditions? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  What  influences  would  you  infer  that  latitude  alone 
would  have  on  this  region?  Study  a  physical  map  and 
note  the  lay  of  the  land  and  the  elevations  and  tell  how 
this  would  influence  temperature. 

2.  Study  the  map  of  the  winds  and  determine  the  belt  or 
belts  in  which  this  region  lies.  What  inference  may  be 
drawn  as  to  rainfall? 

3.  How  much  rainfall  does  it  have  and  how  is  it  distributed 
through  the  year?     (See  table  on  p.  112.) 

4.  Considering  the  temperature  and  elevation,  what  about 
the  amount  of  evaporation?  What  do  you  conclude 
with  reference  to  the  quantity  of  water  available  for 
plant  growth  in  this  region? 

5.  Explain  how  cacti  are  related  to  such  an  environment. 

6.  This  region  has  what  is  called  the  Mexican  type  of 
climate.  It  is  a  part  of  the  inter-tropical  province. 
Color  it  in  red  on  the  world  map.  Find  five  other  regions 
of  the  world  that  are  similar,  name  them,  and  put  them 
on  the  map  in  red  also.     (See  Dryer.) 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  Index;  Dryer^pp.  329,335,481, 
489,  490,  493,  498;  Dodge,  Advanced  Geography,  p.  194; 
Mill,  pp.  777-779;  Herbertson,  Senior  Geography,  p.  321; 
Diercke,  Schul- Atlas;  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorology; 
Milham,  Meteorology 

Conclusions : 

1.  Belts  of  winds  and  calms  in  which  the  Mexican  type 
lies 

2.  Relation  of  elevation  to  rainfall  and  temperature 

3.  Relation  of  latitude  to  temperature  and  evaporation 

4.  Nature  and  amount  of  summer  and  winter  rainfall 


76  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

5.  Types  of  vegetation  thriving  in  this  type  of  climate,  with 
causes 

6.  Other  places  in  the  world  having  like  climate 

7.  Outstanding  characteristics  of  the  Mexican  type  of  climate 

Related  Problems: 

1.  How  is  the  climate  of  the  Mexican  plateau  related 
to  transportation? 

2.  Why  is  the  Indian  in  Mexico  a  more  important 
factor  in  public  affairs  than  he  is  in  the  United 
States? 

3.  Why  are  most  of  the  people  living  in  the  Mexican 
type  of  climate  not  as  progressive  as  peoples  of 
temperate  regions? 

4.  Why  is  the  Dekhan  more  densely  populated  than 
the  highlands  of  central  Brazil? 

5.  How  do  you  account  for  the  rainfall  distribution  in 
the  central  African  area  which  corresponds  to  the 
Mexican  type? 

37.  ARIZONAN  TYPE,  OR  ARID  AND  DESERT  CLIMATES 

Purpose:  Studying   the   causes  and   effects   of  the   dry 
region  in  southwestern  United  States 

Problem:  Why  can  crops  be  grown  successfully  in  south- 
western United  States  only  when  under  irrigation? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  About  what  is  the  annual  rainfall  in  this  region,  and 
how  is  it  distributed  through  the  year?  Likewise  what 
is  the  temperature  distribution?  (See  climatic  charts, 
and  Bartholomew,  Economic  Atlas.) 

2.  From  a  map  of  the  wind  belts  find  out  in  which  one 
this  region  is  located  at  different  parts  of  the  year. 
From  what   direction  do   the   moisture-bearing  winds 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  77 

come?    Why  such  a  low  rainfall?     (See  Soil  Survey, 
igio,  Yuma  Area.) 

3.  About  how  much  rainfall  is  required  to  grow  crops? 
Upon  what  does  the  amount  of  rain  needed  depend? 
What  supplementary  means  is  used  in  such  regions  in 
order  that  crops  may  be  grown? 

4.  This  is  called  the  Arizonan  or  arid  type  and  belongs  to 
the  subtropical  climates.  Color  it  in  green  on  your 
map.  Find  four  others  like  it  and  put  them  on  the  map 
in  green  also.     (See  Dryer,  pp.  224-225.) 

References : 

Milham,  Meteorology;  Dryer,  pp.  328,  391-400,  409; 
Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  200-202;  Tarr  and  Mc- 
Murry,  Arizona  Supplement,  pp.  13-15;  Soil  Survey  of 
the  Yuma  and  Solomonville  Area,  Arizona 

Conclusions : 

1.  Influence  of  local  elevation  and  neighboring  mountains 
on  rainfall 

2.  Distribution  and  amount  of  rainfall 

3.  Cause  of  high  percentage  of  sunshine 

4.  Planetary  belts  of  winds  and  calms 

5.  Factors  upon  which  an  adequate  supply  of  precipitation 
depends 

6.  Source  and  application  of  irrigation  water 

7.  Principal  crops  of  the  region 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  Why  do  such  regions  support  so  small  a  population  ? 

2.  Who  were  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  this  region, 
and  how  did  they  make  a  living? 

3 .  Why  are  west  coasts  in  the  region  of  the  trade  winds 
and  tropical  calm  belts  usually  very  dry? 

4.  Account  for  any  wet  regions  of  the  world  that  you 
may  find  in  the  latitude  of  the  Arizonan  type  of 
climate. 


78  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

38.  CALIFORNIAN   TYPE,   OR  WEST-COAST 

TRANSITIONAL   CLIMATES 

Purpose :  To  investigate  the  causes  of  the  equable  climate 
of  California  and  the  seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall 

Problem:  Why  do  so  many  people  go  to  California  to 
spend  the  winter? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  In  what  belts  of  winds  and  calms  does  this  region  lie  at 
different  times  of  the  year?  (See  Journal  of  Geography, 
XII,  205.)  What  is  true  of  the  total  and  seasonal  dis- 
tribution of  rainfall? 

Find  the  facts  concerning  the  temperature  and  sunshine 
factors. 

2.  How  do  you  account  for  the  distribution  of  rainfall,  both 
areal  and  seasonal?  At  least  a  half-dozen  factors  should 
be  considered. 

3.  Note  the  influence  such  a  climate  has  on  vegetation  and 
life  in  general. 

4.  This  climate,  the  Californian  type,  is  found  in  three 
other  places  in  the  world,  one  in  the  Northern  and  two 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Find  these  and  put  them 
on  the  climatic  map  in  green. 

References : 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  185-189;  Dryer,  pp.  412- 
418;  Journal  of  Geography,  XII,  205;  Brigham  and 
McFarlane,  Essentials  of  Geography;  Soil  Survey  of  Wood- 
land and  San  Bernardino  Areas,  California 

Conclusions: 

1.  Belts  of  winds  and  calms  at  different  times  of  the  year 

2.  Distribution  of  rainfall,  with  causes 

3.  Why  fine  for  semitropical  fruits 

4.  Influence  of  sea  on  climate 

5.  Relation  of  climate  of  western  coast  and  ocean  currents 

6.  How  mountains  are  involved 

7.  Why  fine  for  tourists  and  winter  residence 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  79 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  is  California  a  good  region  for  wheat,  but  poor 
for  corn  ? 

2.  Why  are  there  marked  land  and  sea  breezes  in  Cali- 
fornia in  summer,  but  not  in  winter? 

3.  Why  is  southern  California  dryer  than  the  northern 
part? 

4.  What  climatic  factor  was  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization? 

5.  Why  are  there  no  climates  corresponding  to  the 
California  type  found  on  eastern  coasts? 

39.  FLORIDAN    TYPE,    OR    SUBTROPICAL    EAST-COAST 
CLIMATES   IN    THE    NORTHERN    HEMISPHERE 

Purpose:  Learning  the  characteristics  of  the  climate  of 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  the 
location  of  similar  climates  in  the  world 

Problem:  How  do  you  account  for  the  warm  equable 
climate  and  the  heavy  evenly  distributed  rainfall  of 
Florida  ? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Verify  the  assumptions  in  the  problem.  Apply  all  the 
factors  you  have  studied  about  that  have  to  do  with  tem- 
perature and  rainfall  and  see  if  you  can  find  the  causes. 

2.  From  what  direction  do  the  winds  come  that  bear 
moisture  to  the  southeastern  coastal  plains  of  the 
United  States?    Why  is  the  rain  evenly  distributed? 

3.  What  types  and  varieties  of  vegetation  thrive  under 
such  conditions? 

4.  This  type  and  its  correlative  in  China  are  called  the 
Floridan.     Enter  these  in  green  on  your  outline  map. 

References : 

Salisbury-Barrows- Tower,  pp.   188-190;    Dryer,  pp.  328, 
356,    473;     Journal    of   Geography,    XII,    106;     Milham, 


8o  Studies  in  the  Principles  oj  Geography 

Meteorology;  Climatic  Charts  oj  U.  S.;  Bartholomew,  Atlas 
of  Meteorology;  Wall  Atlas  of  North  America;  Soil  Survey, 
Jacksonville  Area,  Florida 

Conclusions: 

i.  Distribution  of  rainfall  and  temperature  in  Florida 

2.  Factors  involved  in  producing  the  Floridan  climate 

3.  Kinds  and  types  of  vegetation  going  with  this  type  of 
climate 

4.  Influence  of  such  climate  on  man's  activities 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Contrast  the  climate  of  Florida  with  that  of  Arizona 
and  give  causes  for  differences. 

2 .  Why  does  the  climate  of  Florida  differ  from  that  of 
areas  in  corresponding  latitudes  on  west  coasts? 

3.  Why  are  Florida  and  China  subject  to  the  destructive 
subtropical   cyclone?      (See    Milham,   Meteorology.) 

4.  To  what  extent  is  the  Floridan  climate  a  result  of 
monsoon  effects?     Study  wind  and  pressure  maps. 

40.  LA  PLATA    TYPE,     OR     SUBTROPICAL    EAST-COAST 
CLIMATES   IN    THE   SOUTHERN    HEMISPHERE 

Purpose:  Determining  the  outstanding  characteristics 
of  the  climate  of  the  La  Plata  region 

Problem:  What  causes  the  wide  difference  in  the  occu- 
pations of  the  people  in  the  Floridan  and  the  La  Plata 
regions  ? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Study  the  latitude  of  each  type.  How  do  they  com- 
pare in  altitude,  their  relation  to  the  sea,  and  surround- 
ing topography?  What  of  the  possibility  of  rainfall 
being  brought  to  this  region  in  large  quantities  by  the 
same  means  as  in  Florida?  As  one  goes  equator- 
ward  from  this  region,  will  he  encounter  land  or  water? 
Compare  with  Florida  in  this  respect. 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  81 

2.  By  what  kind  of  storms  will  the  rainfall  of  this  region 
be  brought? 

3.  Be  able  to  summarize  the  seasonal  rainfall  and  distribu- 
tion of  temperature  for  this  region. 

4.  The  La  Plata  type  of  climate,  a  part  of  the  subtropical 
region,  and  its  two  correlatives  should  be  put  on  the 
map  in  green. 

References: 

Bowman,  pp.  8,  42,  202-205;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
p.  188;  Mill,  p.  849;  Dryer,  pp.  500-502;  Milham,  Mete- 
orology; Oxford  University,  Wall  Atlas  of  South  America; 
Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorology 

Conclusions : 

r.  How  the  distribution  of  temperature  and  rainfall  of  this 
region  differs  from  the  Floridan 

2.  How  adjacent  areas  toward  the  equator  influence  the 
climate 

3.  Wind  belt  in  which  this  type  lies 

4.  Relation  to  monsoons 

5.  Natural  vegetation  and  economic  conditions 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  Why  is  the  La  Plata  region  a  grassland  rather  than 
forest  region? 

2.  What  factors   make   this   a   great   potential   grain 
region  ? 

3 .  What  are  the  outstanding  features  of  the  correspond- 
ing South  African  region? 

4.  Why  are  some  of  the  regions  of  this  type  savannas 
and  others  steppes? 

41.  OREGON   TYPE,   OR  TEMPERATE   WEST-COAST 
CLIMATES   IN    MIDDLE   LATITUDES 

Purpose:  Studying  the  geographic  factors  that  condition 
the  climate  of  Washington  and  Oregon 


82  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Problem:  What  important  contrasts  can  you  find  in  the 
temperature  and  amount  and  distribution  of  rainfall 
between  San  Francisco  and  Portland,  and  how  do  you 
account  for  these  differences? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  Find  out  the  belt  of  winds  in  which  each  is  located. 
What  is  true  of  the  relation  of  areas  of  high  and  low 
pressure  to  the  Oregon  region  in  summer  and  winter, 
and  how  does  this  affect  the  direction  and  velocity  of 
the  wind  at  different  seasons? 

2.  What  of  the  influence  of  altitude  and  latitude?  Why 
more  rainfall  in  winter  than  in  summer? 

3.  What  will  be  the  nature  of  the  storms  that  bring  rain- 
fall, and  will  a  forecast  of  them  be  an  easy  matter?  Why? 
Study  the  average  storm  tracks  from  Bartholomew, 
Atlas  of  Meteorology,  Plate  XXIX,  and  infer  any 
relations  to  winter  rainfall. 

4.  The  Oregon  type  of  climate,  a  part  of  the  warm  tem- 
perate area  of  the  world,  has  two  correlatives.  Find 
them  and  put  them  on  your  climatic  map  of  the  world 
in  purple. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  328,  412,  425,  593;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
p.  191;  Soil  Survey,  1910,  Puget  Sound  Basin,  Washington; 
Journal  of  Geography,  XI,  102;  Tarr  and  McMurry,  Wash- 
ington Supplement;  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorology, 
Plate  XXIX 

Conclusions : 

1.  Summer  and  winter  winds  and  air  pressure 

2.  Relation  of  areas  of  high  and  low  pressure  to  this  region 
in  summer  and  winter 

3.  Influence  of  mountain  and  sea 

4.  Seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall  and  temperature 

5.  Possibility  of  weather  forecasting  for  this  region 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  83 

• 
Related  Problems: 

1 .  What  factors  make  the  Oregon  region  important  for 
forests,  wheat,  and  fruits? 

2.  Account  for  the  distribution  of  rainfall  for  northern 
France  and  southern  Britain. 

3.  What  are  the  conditions  that  make  the  climate  of 
New  Zealand  like  that  of  Oregon? 

4.  Why  doesn't  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States 
in  the  vicinity  of  Maine  have  a  climate  like  that 
of  Oregon  and  Washington? 

5.  Why  are  Wyoming  and  Montana  colder  and  dryer 
in  winter  than  Oregon? 

6.  What  climatic  advantages  has  western  Europe 
enjoyed  that  might  be  accredited  with  a  large  part 
of  her  progressiveness  ? 

42.  MISSISSIPPIAN   TYPE,   OR   LOW   CONTINENTAL 

INTERIOR  AND  EAST-COAST   CLIMATES 

IN    MIDDLE   LATITUDES 

Purpose:  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  the  climate  of 
east-central  United  States  and  the  reasons  therefor 

Problem:  What  climatic  factors  favor  the  production  of 
corn  on  such  a  large  scale  in  east-central  United  States  ? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  What  do  you  find  to  be  true  as  to  the  seasonal  distri- 
bution of  temperature  at  Topeka  as  shown  in  the  table 
of  climatic  factors  (page  112)?  Why  so  different  from 
that  in  California? 

2.  Study  maps  of  seasonal  distribution  of  pressure  and  see 
if  you  can  determine  from  them  the  general  drift  of  the 
winds  in  summer  and  winter,  whether  toward  the  margin 
or  interior  of  the  continent.  What  type  of  storms 
brings  precipitation  to  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  United  States? 


84  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

3.  What  is  the  annual  and  seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall 
for  Topeka,  Columbus,  and  New  York  City?  (See 
Soil  Survey  areas.) 

4.  What  is  true  concerning  the  amount  and  seasonal  dis- 
tribution of  sunshine  in  different  parts  of  this  region  and 
why  so  high  during  the  season  of  greatest  precipitation? 

5.  The  Mississippian  type  of  climate,  a  part  of  the  intem- 
perate area  of  the  world,  has  two  others  like  it.  Locate 
them  and  color  them  in  purple  on  the  map. 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  195-205;  Dryer,  pp.  328, 
356,  451,  473;  Oxford  University,  Wall  Atlas  Map  oj  North 
America;  Climatic  Charts  of  U.  S.;  Soil  Surveys  of  Shawnee 
Area,  Kansas,  Livingston  Area,  New  York,  Columbus 
Area,  Ohio;  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorology;  Milham, 
Meteorology 

Conclusions: 

1.  Why  this  region  has  extremes  of  temperature,  both  sea- 
sonal and  often  daily 

2.  Why  a  greater  amount  of  rainfall  in  summer  than  in 
winter 

3.  Why  amount  of  rainfall  decreases  westward 

4.  Reason  for  high  percentage  of  sunshine  in  summer 

5.  Factors  involved  in  making  this  a  great  corn  region 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  What  are  several  factors  that  have  made  this  region 
one  of  great  economic  significance  and  progress? 

2.  In  what  ways  do  eastern  Europe  and  northern 
China  have  climates  corresponding  to  the  Mississip- 
pian? 

3.  Why  have  Russia  and  China  not  had  the  remark- 
able development  that  has  obtained  in  central  and 
eastern  United  States? 

4.  What  are  the  factors  that  mark  the  Russian  people 
as  a  possible  important  factor  in  future  world 
progress  ? 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  85 

43.  AMERICAN    INTERIOR   TYPE,    OR    HIGH 

CONTINENTAL   INTERIOR   CLIMATES   IN 

MIDDLE   LATITUDES 

Purpose:  Investigating  the  climatic  characteristics  in 
the  northern  plateau  region  of  the  United  States 

Problem:  All  of  the  territory  from  central  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  and  the  Dakotas  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  Mountains  was  once  called  the  "Great  Ameri- 
can Desert."  What  reasons  can  you  find  for  such  a 
name  and  how  do  you  account  for  this  expression's 
going  out  of  use? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Study  climatic  table,  soil  surveys,  and  maps  and  deter- 
mine the  distribution  of  temperature  and  the  amount 
and  seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall  in  this  region. 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  vegetation  supported  by  such 
climatic  conditions? 

2.  What  animals  can  be  grown  successfully  in  such  a 
region? 

3.  Account  for  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  tempera- 
ture and  rainfall.  Note  elevation,  latitude,  adjacent 
highlands,  wind  belt,  distance  to  the  sea,  etc.  What 
factors  have  helped  to  make  this  region  more  useful  to 
mankind? 

4.  There  are  two  other  regions  in  the  world,  parts  of  the 
intemperate  area  of  the  world,  similar  in  climate  to 
the  American  interior.  Put  them  on  your  map  in 
purple. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  328,  391,  398,  399;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
pp.  191,  203;  Mill,  pp.  760,  767;  Milham,  Meteorology; 
Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorology;  Climatic  Charts  of  U.  S.; 
Soil  Survey  of  Fallon  Area  Nevada,  and  Minidoka  Area, 
Idaho 


86  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Conclusions : 

i.  Amount  and  distribution  of  rainfall  in  this  area 

2.  Type  of  natural  vegetation  in  this  region 

3.  Why  irrigation  and  dry  farming  are  practiced 

4.  Why  the  cattle  and  sheep  industries  are  important 

5.  Reasons  for  the  small  amount  of  rainfall 

6.  Why  not  a  good  region  for  swine 

7.  Why  no  longer  the  "Great  American  Desert" 

Related  Problems: 

1.  What  is  the  outlook  for  the  future  of  this  large 
American  interior? 

2.  How  are  the  people  of  this  region  related  to  and 
dependent  on  the  more  populous  regions  of  the 
United  States? 

3.  What  peculiar  characteristics  of  folks  are  developed 
and  fostered  by  nomadic  life?  By  mining  com- 
munities?    By  irrigated  regions? 

4.  Mention  and  explain  several  ways  in  which  unfavor- 
able geographic  conditions  have  been  ameliorated 
in  this  region. 

5.  Why  may  central  Asia  be  classed  with  the  American 
interior  in  climatic  respects? 

44.  ALASKAN    TYPE,    OR   WEST-COAST   CLIMATES 
IN    HIGH    LATITUDES 

Purpose:  Studying  the  factors  upon  which  the  climate 
of  southern  Alaska  depends 

Problem:  How  do  you  account  for  the  heavy  rainfall 
and  mild  equable  winter  climate  of  southern  Alaska? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  See  if  you  can  verify  the  premises  in  the  problem.  In 
what  belt  of  winds  is  this  region?  What  type  of  storms 
will  brin"  most  of  the  rainfall? 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  87 

2.  Study  the  average  arrangement  of  the  high-pressure 
and  low-pressure  areas  for  winter  and  summer  and  see 
how  this  would  influence  direction  and  rate  of  air 
movement. 

3.  Determine  the  influence  of  latitude,  adjacent  highlands, 
and  waters. 

4.  Evaluate  the  influence  of  the  Japan  current,  the  south- 
west winter  winds,  and  heat  freed  by  condensation. 

5.  There  are  two  other  regions,  parts  of  the  cold  temperate 
areas  of  the  world,  like  this  one.  Find  where  they  are, 
and  locate  and  color  them  in  yellow  on  your  map. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  328,  508,  511;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp. 
22,  120,  138;  Mill,  p.  681;  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Meteorol- 
ogy; Milham,  Meteorology;  Journal  of  Geography,  XI,  23 

Conclusions: 

1 .  Belt  of  winds  in  which  this  region  is  located 

2.  Direction  of  summer  and  winter  winds,  with  reasons 

3.  Time  of  greatest  rainfall,  with  reasons 

4.  Influence  of  the  Japan  current,  and  liberation  of  latent 
heat 

5.  Why  a  more  equable  climate  than  in  the  Mississippian 
region 

6.  Industrial  and  economic  responses  to  this  type  of  climate 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  Why  is  the  winter  climate  of  Norway  and  Scotland 
no  more  severe  than  that  of  Washington,  D.  C? 

2.  WTry  was  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United 
States  a  good  business  deal? 

3.  Compare  the  prospect  of  Alaska  for  the  future  with 
that  of  Norway  and  southern  Chili. 

4.  Why  does  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America  in 
the  latitude  of  Alaska  not  have  as  good  a  climate 
as  the  western  coast? 


88  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

5.  Why  is  the  seasonal  range  of  temperature  at  Sitka 
not  much  greater  than  at  many  places  within  the 
tropics  ?     Verify. 

45.  CANADIAN   TYPE,   OR   CONTINENTAL  AND 
EAST-COAST   CLIMATES   IN   HIGH   LATITUDES 

Purpose:  Learning  the  characteristics  and  causes  of  the 
climate  of  Canada  and  its  correlatives 

Problem:  Why  is  it  possible  to  grow  such  fine  crops  of 
small  grain  and  potatoes  so  far  north  in  Canada? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  Find  out  concerning  the  seasonal  and  daily  range  of 
temperature.     Explain  the  warm  summers  so  far  north. 

2 .  What  are  the  amount  and  seasonal  distribution  of  rain- 
fall, and  what  are  the  causal  factors? 

3.  Why  does  the  eastern  coast  get  less  rainfall  than  the 
western  coast?  Why  is  Canada  not  a  good  corn  coun- 
try ?  (See  Problem  42.) 

1.  Show  how  Siberia  has  a  climate  like  that  of  Canada 
and  put  the  two  on  your  map  in  yellow.     (Why  yellow?) 

References: 

Mill,  p.  681;  Dryer,  pp.  326,  508,  511;  Salisbury- 
Barrows-Tower,  pp.  22,  120,  138;  Bartholomew,  Atlas  of 
Meteorology;    Milham,  Meteorology 

Conclusions: 

1.  Maximum  range  of  daily  and  seasonal  temperature 

2.  Amount  and  seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall 

3.  Nature  and  cause  of  chinook  winds 

4.  Reason  for  so  much  summer  sunshine 

5.  Effect  of  long  summer  days  on  crops 

6.  Why  a  great  timber  and  fur  country 

Related  Problems: 

i .  What  are  the  prospects  for  Canada's  becoming  much 
more  important,  agriculturally,  than  it  is  now' 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  89 

2.  Why  are  railroads  being  built  to  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Hudson  Bay? 

3.  Why  is  the   Mackenzie  River  not  important  com- 
mercially? 

4.  What  makes  the  Siberian  region  like  Canada? 

5.  Would    railroads   north    to    the    Arctic    Ocean    be 
practical  in  Siberia? 

46.  ARCTIC  TYPE,  OR  POLAR  CLIMATES 

Purpose:  To    evaluate    the    climatic    factors    connected 
with  the  cold  regions  of  the  earth 

Problem:  Why  do  explorers  in  the  polar  regions  experi- 
ence so  many  hardships  and  dangers  in  their  travels? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Study  tables  and  maps  of  temperatures  in  the  far  north 
and  state  the  principal  characteristics  noted.  What  is 
the  nature  of  most  of  the  precipitation? 

2.  What  is  true  concerning  periods  of  sunshine  in  the  arctic 
regions  and  of  their  effect  on  temperature? 

3.  What  can  you  find  as  to  the  possibilities  of  vegetation 
and  animal  life  and  their  availability  for  man's  use? 

4.  Outline  on  the  map,  but  do  not  color,  the  regions  having 
the  Arctic  type  of  climate. 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  214-224;  Dryer,  pp.  328, 
511;  stories  of  Arctic  travel  and  discovery ;  Mill,  pp.  1025- 
1046 

Conclusions : 

1.  Seasonal  minimum  and  distribution  of  temperature 

2.  Cause  of  long  Arctic  days  and  nights 

3.  Nature  of  the  precipitation 

4.  Possibilities  of  animal  and  plant  production 

5.  Why  men  have  had  great  difficulty  in  reaching  the  North 
Pole 


go  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Related  Problems: 

i.  Why  do  not  the  unsanitary  habits  of  the  Eskimo 
have  the  same  serious  results  that  similar  habits 
would  have  in  our  own  country? 

2 .  How  is  the  reindeer  of  great  value  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Arctic  regions? 

3.  Why  should  the  inhabitant  of  the  cold  desert  be 
a  nomad? 

4.  What  are  the  prospects  for  reindeer  meat  and  prod- 
ucts taking  any  large  place  in  the  commerce  of  the 
world  ? 

5.  Why  are  the  cold-desert  dwellers  less  civilized  than 
those  of  the  mid-world  deserts? 

6.  In  what  month  should  one  traveling  to  the  Arctic 
region  make  his  dash  for  the  pole?  Why?  (See 
account  of  Peary's  trip  to  the  pole.) 


47.  GREENLAND   TYPE,    OR   CLIMATE   OF 
CONTINENTAL   ICE    SHEETS 

Purpose:  Studying  the  climate  of  regions  covered  with 
continental  glaciers 

Problem:  Why  is  Greenland  inhabited  only  on  the  south- 
ern margin  and  not  in  the  interior? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  What  can  you  find  concerning  the  temperatiire  and 
precipitation  in  this  region? 

2.  What  parts  of  Greenland  are  not  covered  with  ice? 
What  are  the  possibilities  as  to  the  growing  of  crops  of 
any  kind? 

3.  What  is  the  economic  basis  of  human  habitation  in 
Greenland?  Where  are  the  animals  of  Greenland  found 
and  what  are  they? 


Climatic  Types  and  Their  Correlatives  91 

4.  Color  Greenland  and  Antarctica  in  orange,  and  then 
you  will  have  your  map  of  climatic  types  complete. 

References : 

Mill,  pp.  1040-1043;  Dryer,  pp.  342,  512-515;  Salisbury- 
Barrows-Tower,  pp.  219-224,  385,  386;  stories  of  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  exploration;  Amundsen,  Expedition  to  the 
South  Pole 

Conclusions : 

1.  As  to  seasonal  range  of  temperature 

2.  Amount  and  distribution  of  precipitation 

3.  Parts  not  glaciated 

4.  Depth  of  ice  on  Greenland 

5.  Why  people  can  live  in  Greenland 

6.  Possibilities  of  growing  crops 

7.  Extent  of  Greenland  glacier 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Give  an  account  of  Peary's  discovery  of  the  North 
Pole. 

2.  Who  was  the  first  to  find  his  way  to  the  South  Pole 
and  when?     Give  an  account  of  the  trip. 

3 .  What  is  the  nature  of  the  topography  of  the  Antarctic 
continent? 

4.  Can  the  exploration  of  the  polar  regions  serve  any 
useful  purpose? 


VIII.     DISTRIBUTION    OF   VEGETATION 

PROJECT 

This  project  develops  the  idea  that  physical  environ- 
ment is  the  determining  element  in  the  life  and  distri- 
bution of  natural  vegetation  and  constitutes  the  largest 
factor  in  the  localization  of  domesticated  plants. 

48.  CONDITIONS   OF    PLANT    LIFE 

Purpose:  To   study   the  factors  upon  which   plant   life 
depends 

Problem:  What   are   the   conditions   which   control   the 
growth  and  development  of  plant  life? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  Where  and  how  do  plants  get  their  food? 

2.  How  necessary  is  air  to  the  welfare  of  plants? 

3.  What  would  happen  to  plants  if  moisture  were  with- 
held from  them?  In  how  many  ways  is  moisture  useful 
to  plants? 

4.  Name  some  of  the  effects  of  favorable  and  unfavorable 
temperature. 

5.  Why  do  plants  need  sunshine? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  other  conditions  upon  which  the 
welfare  of  domesticated  plants  depends  besides  those 
mentioned  above? 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  226-243;  Salisbury,  pp.  462-473;  Hardy, 
Introduction  to  Plant  Geography,  pp.  136-150;  textbooks 
on  agriculture;  Gregory-Keller-Bishop,  p.  120;  Mill,  pp. 
83-88 

9-' 


Distribution  of  Vegetation  93 

Conclusions : 

1.  How  and  where  plants  get  food 

2.  Why  plants  need  air  and  water 

3.  Effects  of  favorable  and  unfavorable  temperature 

4.  Difference  between  parasitic  and  other  plants 

5.  How  some  plants  are  dependent  upon  man  for  their 
existence 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Show  how  corn  could  not  thrive  in  Iowa  without 
man's  help. 

2.  What  would  happen  to  all  our  fine  fruits  if  man 
should  neglect  just  one  generation  of  trees? 

3.  Name  several  plants  that  have  adaptations  that 
peculiarly  fit  them  for  desert  habitation.  Explain 
fully. 

4.  What  constitutes  the  difference  between  deciduous 
and  evergreen  trees? 

5.  Why  do  the  oak,  ash,  and  elm  have  resting  or  dor- 
mant periods  during  the  year?  Is  this  true  of  the 
pine  and  cedar? 

6.  Show  how  cockleburs,  sunflowers,  and  ragweeds 
manage  to  thrive  in  spite  of  an  unfavorable  season. 

49.  TYPES    OF    PLANT    LIFE 

Purpose:  To  study  concerning  the  types  of  plant  life 
that  are  best  adapted  to  the  different  climatic  regions 
of  the  world 

Problem:  What  are  some  of  the  adaptations  that  plants 
have  taken  upon  themselves  in  order  to  fit  into  the 
varying  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  as  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  world  ? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1 .  How  do  plants  differ  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  moisture 


94  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

needed  for  their  growth?     What  adaptations  are  to  be 
noted  in  this  connection? 

2.  What  are  the  different  types  of  woodlands  and  what 
are  the  conditions  that  favor  the  development  of  each? 

3.  What  are  the  conditions  that  develop  different  types  of 
grasslands?  How  are  they  named  and  where  are  they 
found? 

4.  What  kinds  of  vegetation  are  found  in  different  desert 
regions?  Name  some  of  the  important  species  of  desert 
plants. 

5.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  vegetation  in  some  of  the 
transition  regions. 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  226-242;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  Index; 
Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work;  Hardy,  Introduction  to 
Plant  Geography;  Oxford  University,  Vegetation  Wall  Maps; 
Bartholomew,  Economic  Atlas 

Conclusions: 

1.  Types  of  plants  as  related  to  moisture 

2.  Woodland  types  of  plant  life 

3.  Types  of  grasslands 

4.  Types  of  desert  vegetation 

5.  Vegetation  of  transition  regions 

6.  Tundra  vegetation 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  arc  large  interiors  usually  steppe  or  desert 
regions  ? 

2.  In  what  way  is  the  natural  vegetation  of  southern 
Europe  adapted  to  the  climate  of  that  region? 

3.  Why  is  it  more  necessary  for  plants,  in  a  country 
with  a  severe  winter,  to  produce  seeds  than  it  is  in 
warm  regions? 

4.  Why  do  coniferous  forests  cover  the  Canadian  and 
Alaskan  regions' 

5.  How  are  plant  and  animal  life  related? 


Distribution  of  Vegetation  95 

50.  SURVEY   OF   PLANT   DISTRIBUTION 

Purpose:  To  learn  the  names  of  the  different  plant 
regions  of  the  world  and  the  reasons  for  their  localiza- 
tion 

Problem :  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  world 
may  be  divided  up  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of 
plant  life? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

1.  All  the  land  of  the  world  is  either  forested  or  not  forested. 
With  this  the  basis  of  division,  how  shall  we  subdivide 
each  of  these  regions? 

2.  If  the  heat  belts  serve  for  this  division,  what  shall  con- 
stitute the  minor  divisions  of  each? 

3.  If  the  world  is  divided  into  plant  regions  on  the  basis 
of  amount  of  precipitation,  how  then  would  you  insert 
the  minor  regions  of  the  plant  kingdom? 

4.  One  of  the  simplest  divisions  separates  all  the  vegetation 
of  the  world  into  these  parts,  namely:  deserts,  grass- 
lands, and  forests.  These  are  further  subdivided  into 
cold  and  hot  deserts,  temperate  and  tropical  grasslands, 
and  temperate  and  tropical  forests. 

What  are  the  characteristics,  names,  and  causes  of  each 
of  these  vegetation  zones  or  regions? 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  226-242;  Ridgley,  Vegetation  Zones  of  the 
Earth;  Dodge,  pp.  65-72;  Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work; 
Hardy,  Introduction  to  Plant  Geography;  Bartholomew, 
Economic  Atlas;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  Index;  Salis- 
bury, pp.  462-472 

Conclusions: 

1.  Nature  and  cause  of  tropical  and  temperate  forests 

2.  Nature  and  cause  of  steppes,  prairies,  and  savannas 

3.  Meaning  of  selvas,  llanos,  campos,  pampas,  sudan, 
Sahara,  and  tundra 


96  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

4.  Nature  and  cause  of  type  of  vegetation  found  in  hot  and 
cold  deserts 

5.  Continents  containing  a  zone  of  each  type 

6.  Why  the  zones  of  plant  life  do  not  follow  parallels  of 
latitude 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  is  there  such  a  dense  continuous  growth  of 
vegetation  along  the  Amazon  River? 

2.  On  the  basis  of  the  classification  given  in  (4)  under 
"Studying  the  Problem,"  get  Goode's  School  Atlas 
or  Harshberger's  vegetation  maps  of  the  world  and 
of  North  America,  and  using  six  colors  or  shades  fill 
in  an  outline  map  showing  the  vegetation  regions. 
On  the  margin  of  the  map  show  the  meaning  of  the 
color  scheme. 

3.  What  vegetation  regions  would  you  cross  in  going 
in  a  straight  line  from  the  Arctic-Siberian  coast, 
no  degrees  East  Longitude,  to  the  equator,  15 
degrees  East  Longitude,  and  thence  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope? 

4.  Make  similar  journeys  over  the  land  on  each  of  the 
tropics,  and  on  the  45th  and  60th  parallels  of  North 
Latitude.  Name  and  explain  the  vegetation  zones 
crossed. 


IX.     DISTRIBUTION    OF   ANIMALS 

PROJECT 

This  project  is  designed  to  show  that  climate  and 
vegetation  are  the  factors  that  condition  the  distribution 
of  animal  life  over  the  earth. 

61.  CONDITIONS   OF   ANIMAL   LIFE 

Purpose:  To  teach  the  factors  upon  which  all  animal 
life  depends 

Problem:  What  are  the  primary  necessities  of  life  with- 
out which  animal  life  would  become  extinct? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  Name  some  of  the  different  kinds  of  food  that  animals 
are  able  to  take  into  their  systems  and  assimilate.  How 
is  the  food  prepared  for  assimilation? 

2.  What  part  does  air  play  in  the  welfare  of  animals?  Give 
ways  in  which  different  animals  get  and  utilize  air. 
What  is  the  vital  element  and  for  what  is  it  used? 

3.  How  is  temperature  related  to  animal  welfare?  Give 
ways  in  which  different  animals  are  adapted  to  tempera- 
ture changes  and  conditions. 

4.  What  does  water  have  to  do  with  the  welfare  of  animal 
life?     Give  three  or  four  important  considerations. 

5.  See  what  you  can  find  out  about  animal  homes. 

References: 

Salisbury,  pp.  473-485;  Dryer,  pp.  243-254;  Salisbury- 
Barrows-Tower,  Index;  Dodge,  pp.  72-78;  Newbigan, 
Animal  Geography;  Mill,  p.  90;  Herbertson,  Man  and  His 
Work;  Diercke.  Schul- Atlas,  pp.  15-16 

Conclusions : 

1 .  Relation  of  food  to  animal  welfare 

97 


98  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

2.  How  food  is  prepared  and  assimilated 

3.  Relation  of  air  to  animal  life  and  how  used  in  the  animal's 
body 

4.  How  temperature  is  related  to  animal  life 

5.  Relation  of  water  to  animal  economy  and  its  particular 
value 

6.  Relation  of  water  to  regulation  of  animal  temperature 

Related  Problems: 

1.  How  is  the  cow,  the  horse,  and  the  chicken  each 
prepared  to  masticate  the  food  taken  into  the  body  ? 

2.  Contrast  the  teeth  of  a  rabbit  with  those  of  a  cat 
and  explain  the  difference  found. 

3.  Account  for  the  difference  in  the  structure  of  the 
mouth  of  a  duck  and  that  of  a  chicken. 

4.  Judging  from  the  structure  of  a  hog's  nose,  how  is 
he  supposed  to  get  his  living? 

52.  TYPES   OF   ANIMAL   LIFE 

Purpose:  To  study  the  various  adaptations  of  animals 
for  the  particular  kind  of  life  each  lives 

Problem:  How  do  the  ways  in  which  an  animal  gets  his 
food  and  protects  himself  from  his  enemies  have  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  structure  and  adaptations  of 
his  body? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Why  and  in  what  particulars  do  land  and  water  animals 
differ  in  structure? 

2.  Animals  may  be  classed  as  carnivorous,  herbivorous, 
and  omnivorous?    What  does  each  of  these  terms  mean? 

3.  Why  do  fish  differ  so  much  in  structure  among  them- 
selves? 

4.  Give  some  distinguishing  characteristics  of  carnivorous 
animals.     Name  ten  carnivorous  animals. 


Distribution  of  Animals  99 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  outstanding  features  in  the  struc- 
ture of  herbivorous  animals  in  connection  with  getting 
food  and  securing  protection  from  enemies? 

6.  Give  a  general  classification  of  animal  life,  beginning 
with  the  lowest  forms  and  concluding  with  the  highest. 

References: 

Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work;  Dryer,  pp.  243-254; 
Salisbury,  pp.  473-485;  Dodge,  pp.  72-78;  Mill,  p.  qo; 
Newbigan,  Animal  Geography;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower, 
Index 

Conclusions: 

1 .  Comparative  structure  of  land  and  sea  animals 

2.  How  animals  are  classified  in  relation  to  food 

3.  Why  animals  of  the  same  class  differ  so  much  in  structure 

4.  Distinguishing  characteristics  of  carnivora  and  herbiv- 
ora  as  to  structure  and  methods  of  getting  food 

5.  Classification  of  animal  life 

Related  Problems: 

1.  How  does  the  kind  of  food  an  animal  eats  influence 
his  temperament? 

2.  Which  is  apt  to  live  more  in  group  life,  the  vege- 
tarian or  the  flesh-eating  animals?     Why? 

3.  Why  do  quadrupeds  not  follow  seasonal  migrations 
as  birds  do? 

4.  Why  are  the  movements  of  the  flyers  much  more 
rapid  than  the  movements  of  the  swimmers? 

5.  Select  from  pictures  good  illustrations  of  swimmers, 
walkers,  runners,  climbers,  flyers,  and  jumpers. 

6.  Show  how  all  animal  life  must  be  dependent  on 
plant  life. 

53.  SURVEY   OF   ANIMAL   DISTRIBUTION 

Purpose:  To  learn  the  reasons  for  the  way  animal  life 
is  distributed  over  the  earth 


ioo  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

Problem:  What  types  of  animal  life  are  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  different  zones  of  temperature  and 
climatic  regions  of  the  earth? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  What  are  the  types  of  animals  that  usually  inhabit 
grasslands? 

2.  Name  some  of  the  animals  that  live  in  the  water  part  of 
the  time  and  out  of  it  part  of  the  time. 

3.  Why  is  there  a  striking  resemblance  among  the  different 
classes  of  animals  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone  or 
northern  realm? 

4.  What  are  the  chief  distinguishing  features  of  the  Indo- 
African  realm  of  animal  life? 

5.  In  what  respects  are  the  animals  of  South  America  in 
a  class  by  themselves?     Reasons. 

6.  What  marked  characteristics  are  possessed  by  the 
animals  of  the  Australian  region? 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  243-254;  Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  Index; 
Salisbury,  pp.  473-485;  Dodge,  pp.  72-78;  Unstead  and 
Taylor,  General  and  Regional  Geography,  pp.  161-164; 
Newbigan,  Animal  Geography;  Mill,  International  Geog- 
raphy 

Conclusions: 

1.  Names  and  characteristics  of  typical  grassland  animals 

2.  Land  and  water  types 

3.  Characteristics  of  animals  of  northern  realm 

4.  General  characteristics  of  animals  of  Indo-African  realm 

5.  How  the  South  American  realm  is  distinguished  from 
others 

6.  Peculiar  characteristics  of  Australian  animals 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Find  the  so-called  "Wallace's   Line"  and   account 
for  its  location. 


Distribution  of  Animals  toi 

2.  Account  for  the  difference  in  structure  between  the 
giraffe  and  the  deer. 

3.  In    what    ways    is    the    hippopotamus    peculiarly 
adapted  to  his  environment? 

4.  Name  several  animals  that  are  fitted  with  protective 
color  adaptations. 

5 .  How  are  the  stripes  of  the  tiger  a  protection  to  him  ? 
('Give  two  ways.) 


X.     DISTRIBUTION   OF   MAN 
PROJECT 

This  project  aims  to  introduce  the  factors  that  deter- 
mine the  distribution  of  the  human  family  over  the  earth. 

64.  CONDITIONS   OF   HUMAN   EXISTENCE 

Purpose:  To  study  the  basic  factors  of  man's  funda- 
mental necessities 

Problem:  What  are  the  common  necessities  for  human 
existence,  and  whence  do  they  come? 

Studying  the  Problem: 

i.  What  are  some  of  the  foods  that  satisfy  human  needs 
in  different  parts  of  the  world? 

2.  Why  do  men  differ  in  their  desires  for  clothing?  What 
materials  are  used? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  different  types  of  shelter  that  are 
used  in  different  regions  of  the  world?  What  deter- 
mines the  kinds  of  materials  used? 

4.  How  has  man's  ability  to  design  and  use  tools  influenced 
his  progress  in  the  world? 

5.  What  methods  of  transportation  has  man  invented  and 
used  for  his  growth  and  development  in  the  world? 

6.  What  r6le  have  luxuries  played  in  man's  progress? 

References : 

Dryer,  p.  255;  Brigham  and  McFarlane,  Advanced  Book; 
Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work;  Mill,  pp.  96-108;  Greg- 
ory-Keller-Bishop, Physical  and  Commercial  Geography; 
Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment;  Keller 
and  Bishop,  Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography 

102 


Distribution  of  Man  103 

Conclusions : 

1.  Staple  human  foods  in  different  parts  of  the  world 

2.  Satisfying  needs  for  clothing 

3.  Why  different  kinds  of  shelter  are  constructed 

4.  Role  of  tools  in  man's  progress 

5.  How  transportation  promotes  division  of  labor 

6.  How  luxuries  become  necessities 

Related  Problems: 

1.  How  is  the  kind  of  food  to  which  the  Eskimo  has 
access  particularly  adapted  to  his  needs? 

2.  Why  may  we  expect  the  airplane  to  become  a  very 
important  factor  in  our  complex  life? 

3 .  How  has  the  freedom  of  the  hands  of  man  influenced 
his  mental  development? 

4.  Trace   the   development   of   harvesting   machinery 
and  show  how  it  has  benefited  mankind. 

5.  Show  how  the  bicycle  has  grown  in  use  from  a 
plaything  to  a  necessity. 

55.  TYPES   OF   THE   HUMAN   FAMILY 

Purpose:  To  investigate  the  characteristics  upon  which 
we  may  base  the  division  of  the  human  family  into 
types 

Problem:  What  are  the  distinguishing  features  that 
enable  us  to  separate  the  billion  and  a  half  people  of 
the  world  into  races  and  types? 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  On  the  basis  of  color  of  skin,  how  is  the  human  family 
divided?     Give  illustrations  of  each  division. 

2.  How  may  characteristics  of  hair  serve  as  a  criterion  for 
a  division? 

3.  How  does  the  shape  of  the  skull  help  in  another  classi- 
fication? 


104  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

4.  What  characteristics  of  stature  may  serve  as  a  basis 
upon  which  to  divide  people  into  types? 

5.  Upon  what  additional  basis  does  anthropology  divide 
the  peoples  of  prehistoric  times? 

References: 

Dryer,  pp.  255-262;  Unstead  and  Taylor,  pp.  165-192; 
Ripley,  Races  of  Europe;  Mill,  pp.  98-108;  Grant,  The 
Passing  of  the  Great  Race;  Bartholomew,  Economic  Atlas, 
P-  13 

Conclusions: 

1.  Division  of  humankind  on  basis  of  color 

2.  How  hair  serves  as  a  basis  of  division 

3.  The  characters  of  skull  serving  as  a  basis  of  division 

4.  How  humankind  may  be  divided  on  the  basis  of  stature 

5.  Where  most  of  the  people  in  each  of  the  above  classifi- 
cations may  be  found 

6.  How  prehistoric  peoples  may  be  classified 

Related  Problems: 

1.  Why  do  people  of  the  white  race  dislike  to  mix 
with  other  races? 

2.  Do  other  races  have  the  same  antipathy  toward 
the  white  race? 

3.  What  are  the  prospects  of  the  different  races  of 
the  world  amalgamating  into  one  great  world  race? 

4.  Give   illustrations   of  inferior   races   dominating   a 
superior  people. 

5.  What  are  the  different  types  of  the  Caucasian  race? 
W7hat  are  the  distinguishing  features?1 

56.  SURVEY    OF    HUMAN    DISTRIBUTION" 

Purpose:  To  study  some  of  the  factors  determining  the 
distribution  of  humankind 

Problem:  Why  are  some  parts  of  the  world  more  densely 
populated  than  other  parts? 


Distribution  of  Man  105 

Studying  the  Problem : 

1.  Name  six  factors  upon  which  the  density  of  population 
depends 

2.  Study  a  world  map  of  density  of  population.  What 
zones  of  temperature  seem  most  favorable  for  supporting 
dense  populations?     Why? 

3.  Find  some  river  valleys  that  are  densely  populated  and 
some  that  are  not  and  give  reasons. 

4.  Where  are  there  some  highlands  that  support  a  com- 
paratively dense  population? 

5.  Why  are  manufacturing  regions  usually  more  densely 
populated  than  agricultural  regions? 

6.  What  natural  resources  are  conducive  to  the  building- 
up  of  centers  of  dense  population? 

References: 

Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  pp.  392-405;  Dryer,  pp.  261- 
262;  Bartholomew,  Economic  Atlas,  p.  12;  Unstead  and 
Taylor,  pp.  342-345;  Dodge,  Advanced  Geography;  Goode, 
Wall  Aliases 

Conclusions: 

1.  Factors  upon  which  density  of  population  depends 

2.  Climatic  regions  most  favorable  for  a  dense  population 

3.  Why  broad  river  valleys  are  often  favorable  for  support- 
ing large  populations 

4.  Why  most  highlands  arc  not  favorable  for  supporting 
large  populations 

5.  Reason  for  manufacturing  regions  supporting  large  popu- 
lations 

6.  Relation  of  natural  resources  to  density  of  population 

Related  Problems: 

1 .  Why  is  the  largest  area  of  dense  population  in  North 
America  east  of  the  100th  meridian? 

2.  Explain  the  distribution  of  population  in  Australia. 

3.  Account  for  the  dense  population  along  the  Nile 
River. 


106  Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography 

4.  How  can  the  densely  populated  agricultural  areas 
of  India,  China,  and  Japan  support  themselves? 

5.  Why  is  central  Africa  more  densely  populated  than 
central  South  America? 

6.  Why  are  seven-tenths  of  the  cities  of  the  United 
States  having  in  19 10  a  population  of  more  than 
100,000  situated  east  of  the  Missouri  River  and 
north  of  the  Ohio? 

7.  Account  for  the  distribution  of  population  in  Cali- 
fornia.    In  Argentina. 


THE  APPENDIX 


THE  APPENDIX 

SOME  NOTES  FOR  TEACHERS  ON  THE 

PROBLEM  METHOD  OF  ATTACK 

IN  GEOGRAPHY 

It  is  now  a  well-recognized  fact  that  geography  can  make 
pupils  think  if  the  materials  are  presented  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  them  an  opportunity.  This  has  been  known  for  a  long 
time,  but  somehow  or  other  writers  of  texts  and  syllabi  have 
not  discovered  how  to  organize  the  facts  so  that  they  will  motivate 
the  pupils  for  thinking.  Now,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
one  thinks  only  when  confronted  by  a  difficulty.  And  even 
then  a  person  does  not  think  unless  he  feels  that  the  difficulty 
is  peculiarly  his  own  and  that  he  must  have  a  solution.  This 
educational  axiom  furnishes  the  foundation  for  the  problem 
method  of  attack  in  teaching  geography. 

There  are  several  steps  in  the  problem-solving  process  which 
teachers  using  the  method  should  know  and  understand.  The 
problem  itself  should  satisfy  several  rather  exacting  require- 
ments, among  which  are  the  following: 

First,  it  must  involve  facts  and  principles  that  are  evidently 
worth  while. 

Second,  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  feel  that  the  problem 
is  one  of  his  own  choosing  and  not  one  that  has  been  forced 
upon  him. 

Third,  it  should  involve  a  considerable  amount  of  material 
organized  about  a  unit  of  work. 

Fourth,  it  should  not  be  too  difficult. 

Fifth,  it  should  have  a  striking  appeal  so  as  to  shock  the 
pupil  into  attention. 

Much  of  the  work  in  satisfying  the  above  requirements  has 
been  done  for  the  teacher  who  uses  this  syllabus,  but  not  all. 

109 


no  The  Appendix 

No  syllabus  or  outline  can  always  present  the  problems  in  such 
a  way  that  they  will  meet  the  second  and  fifth  requirements 
as  stated.  It  is  really  the  work  of  the  teacher  to  motivate  the 
pupils,  if  possible,  into  a  joyful  reception  of  each  unit  of  material 
that  is  to  be  presented.  The  attitude  thus  created  prepares 
the  pupils  to  state  the  problem  in  their  own  way  or  puts  them 
into  a  frame  of  mind  wherein  they  are  glad  to  accept  the  teacher's 
statement  of  the  problem  or  the  one  given  in  the  syllabus. 
The  purpose  stated  in  connection  with  each  of  the  problems  in 
the  syllabus  furnishes  the  aim,  and  the  conclusions  called  for 
summarize  the  ends  to  be  attained.  It  is  left  to  the  teacher 
to  find  out  whether  or  not  the  pupils  will  choose  the  problem 
as  stated  or  will  find  some  other  wording  of  it  more  appealing 
to  them.  The  matter  of  problem  assignment  is  almost  a  fine 
art  in  itself.  The  teacher  must  use  her  utmost  ingenuity  in 
making  the  pupils  feel  that  the  problem  is  their  very  own. 
How  can  she  do  this?  There  are  many  ways.  Suppose  the 
topic  is  "Coastal  Features  That  Result  from  a  Rising  and 
Sinking  of  the  Land."  A  class  exercise  on  the  physical  map 
of  North  America  can  be  so  conducted  as  to  raise  the  problem. 
Let  the  teacher  direct  the  pupils  to  look  for  peculiarities  in  the 
contour  of  the  continental  shelf.  One  of  the  interesting  features 
that  may  be  discovered  is  the  deep  sub-sea  channel  leading 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  out  to  the  edge  of  the  continental 
shelf.  This  might  lead  the  pupils  to  want  to  know  why  that 
deep  channel  is  there.  Thus  the  problem  of  rising  and  sinking 
coasts  would  arise.  Or  the  pupils  in  their  study  of  coastal 
cities  might  come  across  the  interesting  fact  that  there  were 
more  important  coastal  cities  on  the  north  than  on  the  south 
Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States.  This  again  would 
raise  the  question  why,  and  again  we  should  be  into  the  prob- 
lem of  rising  and  sinking  coasts.  It  will  be  noted  that  problem 
eleven  of  the  syllabus  is  the  one  about  coast  lines  and  harbors. 
Now,  if  the  teacher  finds  that  the  pupils'  interest  happens  to  cen- 
ter more  about  Related  Problem  No.  i  or  5  than  about  the  main 
problem  as  stated,  no  violence  will  be  done  the  syllabus,  or 
pedagogy,  or  common  sense,  if  the  same  principles  and  con- 
clusions are  evolved  by  following  the  pupils'  own  choice.     In 


The  Appendix  in 

other  words,  problems  need  not  be  cast  in  an  iron  mold.  There 
should  be  a  large  amount  of  flexibility  in  the  choice  of  problems, 
and  this  syllabus  is  only  a  guide  which  the  resourceful  teacher 
may  depart  from  a  great  deal,  but  which  the  routine  teacher 
will  follow  quite  closely.  In  either  case  the  children  will  be 
made  to  think.  In  the  first  case  the  work  will  be  done  joyfully, 
in  the  second  more  laboriously. 

After  the  problem  has  been  stated,  the  next  step  demanding 
attention  is  the  solution.  The  solution  involves  several  steps 
each  of  which  will  be  given  brief  notice. 

First,  the  pupils  should  get  a  general  idea  of  the  order  of 
procedure.  The  part  of  the  outline  entitled  "Studying  the 
Problem"  is  given  as  a  guide  for  this  work.  These  questions 
should  be  read  through  carefully  and  thoughtfully.  This  read- 
ing should  be  followed  by  a  tentative  outline  of  points  to  be 
worked  out. 

Second,  the  data  called  for  in  the  tentative  outline  should  be 
gathered  from  facts  and  principles  previously  learned,  from  the 
reading  references  given,  and  from  experimentation  and  other 
available  sources  of  information.  Notes  on  this  reading  should 
be  kept  until  a  sufficient  fund  of  material  is  gotten  together  to 
solve  the  problem. 

Third,  the  tentative  outline  should  be  converted  into  a  com- 
pleted outline.  The  conclusions  called  for  in  connection  with 
the  problem  serve  as  a  guide  in  organizing  the  material  into  a 
completed  unit  of  work. 

Fourth,  the  related  problems  are  very  important  in  that 
they  generally  involve  some  or  all  of  the  principles  learned  in 
the  main  problem.  They  serve  the  same  purpose  in  geography 
that  the  lists  of  problems  serve  in  arithmetic — namely,  drill 
in  the  use  and  application  of  principles  —  and  at  the  same  time 
enlarge  the  pupils'  fund  of  usable  geographic  knowledge.  These 
problems  will  also  be  found  very  useful  for  frequent  oral  or 
written  reviews,  serving  to  show  both  the  pupils  and  the  teacher 
whether  or  not  important  principles  have  really  been  digested 
and  assimilated.  It  is  suggested  that  in  purely  academic 
courses  the  three  introductory  problems  may  be  omitted,  but 
in  all  teachers'  training  courses  in  geography  these  problems 
are  very  important. 


112 


The  Appendix 


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REFERENCES   NEEDED   IN   THIS   COURSE 

BOOKS  ON   TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY 

**Archer-Lewis-Chapman,    The   Teaching  of  Geography.     A.  &  C. 

Black. 
**Dodge  and  Kirchwey,  The  Teaching  of  Geography.     Rand  McNally 

&Co. 
**Holtz,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography.     Macmillan. 
Lyde,  The  Teaching  of  Geography.     Blackie  &  Son. 
*Sutherland,  The  Teaching  of  Geography.     Scott,  Foresman  &  Co. 

BOOKS   ON    SUBJECT   MATTER   IN   GEOGRAPHY 
*Adams,  Map  Projection.     George  Phillip  &  Son. 
**Arey-Bryant-Clendenin-Morey,  Physiography.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
**Bowman,  South  America.     Rand  McNally  &  Co. 
*Brigham,  From  Trail  to  Railway  through  the  Appalachians.     Ginn 

&  Co. 
*Brigham,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Brigham  and  McFarlane,    Essentials   of  Geography.      American 
Book  Co. 
**Dodge,  Advanced  Geography.     Rand  McNally  &  Co. 
**Dryer,  High  School  Geography.     American  Book  Co. 
Grant,  The  Passing  of  a  Great  Race.     Scribner. 
*Gregory-Keller-Bishop,     Physical    and     Commercial     Geography. 

Ginn  &  Co. 
*Hardy,  Introduction  to  Plant  Geography.     Oxford  University  Press. 
*Harrington,  About  the  Weather.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
*Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work.     A.  &  C.  Black. 
Herbertson,  Senior  Geography.     Oxford  University  Press. 

*At  least  one  copy  of  those  references  marked  with  one  asterisk  shouid  be  avail- 
able for  class  use. 

♦♦Several  copies  of  those  references  marked  with  two  asterisks  should  be  avail- 
able for  class  use. 

114 


The  Appendix  115 

**Hotchkiss,  Representative  Cities  of  the  United  States.     Houghton 

Mifflin  Co. 
*Johnson,  Mathematical  Geography.     American  Book  Co. 
Keller  and  Bishop,  Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography.     Ginn 

&  Co. 
*Milham,  Meteorology.     Macmillan. 
**Mill,  The  International  Geography.     Macmillan. 
*Newbigan,  Animal  Geography.     Oxford  University  Press. 
**Ridgley,  Vegetation  Zones  of  the  Earth.     McKnight  &  McKnight. 

Ripley,  Races  of  Europe.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
**Robinson,  Commercial  Geography.     Rand  McNally  &  Co. 
**Salisbury,  Physiography,  Briefer  Course.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
**Salisbury-Barrows-Tower,  Elemer.ts  of  Geography.     Henry  Holt 

&  Co. 
*Semple,  American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Conditions.     Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Co. 
*Semple,  The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment.     Henry  Holt 

&  Co. 
*Smith,  Commerce  and  Industry.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Sutherland  and  Sanford,  Practical  Exercises  in  Geography.     Silver, 

Burdette  &  Co. 
*Tarr,  Physical  Geography.     Macmillan. 
Tarr  and  McMurry,  New  Geography.     Macmillan. 
Unstead  and  Taylor,  General  and  Regional  Geography.     George 
Phillip  &  Son. 

MAPS   AND    ATLASES 

*Bartholome\v,    Atlas    of    Meteorology.     Rand    McNally    &    Co., 

agents. 
**Bartholomew,  A  School  Economic  Atlas.     Rand  McNally  &  Co., 
agents. 
*Diercke,  Schul- Atlas.     Rand  McNally  &  Co.,  agents. 
*Goode,  School  Atlas.     Rand  McNally  &  Co. 
*Harshberger,  Vegetation  Map  of  North  America.     Rand  McNally 

&  Co. 
Longmans,  New  School  Atlas.     Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 


n6  The  Appendix 

Oxford  University,  Wall  Maps. 

Goode,  Wall  Maps  of  the  Continents.     Rand  McNally  &  Co. 
*Van  Cleefe,  Precipitation  Map  of  the  United  States.     Rand  McNally 
&Co. 

GOVERNMENT   PUBLICATIONS 

Smithsonian  Report,  1912,  Amundsen,  Expedition  to  the  South 

Pole. 
**United  States  Bureau  of  Soils,  Washington,  D.  C.  (free  to  schools) : 

Survey  of  Yuma  and  Solomonville  Areas,  Arizona 

Survey  of  Woodland  and  San  Bernardino  Areas,  California 

Survey  of  Jacksonville  Area,  Florida 

Survey  of  Puget  Sound  Basin,  Washington 

Survey  of  Shawnee  Area,  Kansas 

Survey  of  Livingston  Area,  New  York 

Survey  of  Columbus  Area,  Ohio 

Survey  of  Fallon  Area,  Nevada 

Survey  of  Minidoka  Area,  Idaho 

Soil  Survey  of  Home  Area 
**United  States  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C.  (free) : 

Climatic  Charts  of  United  States 

Daily  Weather  Map  from  Nearest  Station 
*United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,    D.   C.    (free  to 

schools) : 

Topographic  Maps  of  Home  and  Typical  Areas 

Geological  Folio  and  Monographs  on  Home  Area 

Water  Supply  Papers  and  Monographs  on  Home  Area 
"United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Geographic  News  Bulletin  (free  weekly) 

MAGAZINES 
*  Journal  of  Geography,  A.  J.  Nystrom  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
^Geographical  Review,  American  Geographical  Society,  New  York 

City 
* National    Geographic    },iagazine,    National    Geographic    Society, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


#8y» 


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